Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences SGGW

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 35 Warsaw 2014 Contents SĘKARA A., POHL A., KALISZ A., GRABOWSKA A., CEBULA St. Evaluation of selected Polish carrot cultivars for nutritive value and processing – a preliminary study 3 CIARKA D., STANKIEWICZ-KOSYL M., SZTYBER M., GAWRONSKA H., GAWRONSKI St.W. Response of 33 weed species germination to allelocompounds contained in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) 15

ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA E., WOJTYNA D. Avenue trees – esthetics preferences and safety 25 SZUMILAS H. Allotment gardens in former Eastern Bloc countries – a comparative study of spatial policy in Tallinn and Warsaw 39 SIKORA D., KACZYŃSKA M. Sacred architecture in the residential landscape – the case of Wilanów 53

REVIEWERS 2014 Przemysław Baster Maria Bihunova Stephen Dobson Robert Gruszecki Józef Hernik Ján Mareček Kinga Matysiak Engin Nurlu Viera Paganová Krystyna Pawłowska Lidia Poniży Alena Yakimovich

Paper version of Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Horticulture and Landscape Architecture is a primary version of the journal.

EDITOR IN CHIEF Renata Giedych THEME EDITORS Barbara Łata, Katarzyna Michalska – Horticulture Małgorzata Kaczyńska – Landscape Architecture

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ISSN 1898-8784 Edition: 150 prints

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Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 35, 2014: 3–14 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 35, 2014)

Evaluation of selected Polish carrot cultivars for nutritive value and processing – a preliminary study AGNIESZKA SĘKARA*, ALICJA POHL, ANDRZEJ KALISZ, ANETA GRABOWSKA, STANISŁAW CEBULA Department of Vegetable and Medicinal Plants, University of Agriculture in Krakow

Abstract: Evaluation of selected Polish carrot cultivars for nutritive value and processing – a preliminary study. In the developed world, there is now a great demand for a wide spectrum of high-quality processed vegetable products, with emphasis on freshness and convenience. Carrot is among the most important vegetables in Poland, due to its high biological value and wide range of uses in processing. The breeding of carrots in Poland is directed towards creating new cultivars, meeting the high requirements of the fresh market and processing industry. The aim of the present study was to assess the quality of Polish carrot breeding lines and cultivars and their usefulness for the production of minimally processed carrot cubes. The experiment was carried out in 2008 and 2009 at the University of Agriculture in Krakow, Poland, with selected carrot breeding lines and cultivars (‘A02’, ‘B01’, ‘Drako F1’, ‘F03’, ‘N04’, ‘NOE 606’, ‘NOE 808’). The morphological and chemical characteristics were evaluated and processing usefulness was assessed. ‘NOE 606’ formed roots with an attractive cylindrical shape with a small core. ‘N04’ was the line with the highest biological value according to the analyzed chemical characteristics, especially with its high content of dry matter, soluble sugars, carotenoids and soluble solids, and low accumulation of nitrates. ‘NOE 808’ provided frozen cubes with the best quality, while ‘N04’, ‘A02’ and ‘NOE 606’ showed the greatest suitability for drying. Root length correlated positively with carotenoid content, but negatively with the level of nitrates. The Polish-bred carrot genotypes were characterized by high biological quality, but the differences between them were significant, enabling the iden-

tification of genotypes with the best features for particular types of use. Key words: Daucus carota, carotenoids, nitrates, freezing, drying

INTRODUCTION Vegetables are the most important nutritional products in the human diet. Among them, carrot is one of the most valuable nutritional components, in view of its high content of carotenoids, fiber, essential micronutrients and functional ingredients like phenolics, polyacetylenes, isocoumarins, terpenes and sesquiterpenes [Metzger and Barnes 2009]. Raw carrot contains on average (per 100 g FM) 12 g of dry matter, 4.7 g of total sugar, 2.8 g of total dietary fiber, 8.3 mg of β-carotene; moreover, processing (freezing, cooking, boiling, draining, without salt) only minimally affects the content of the main chemical constituents in the final product [Sharma et al. 2011]1. The high carotene content in carrot makes it one of the richest provitamin A sources in the human diet. Carotenoids, together with polyphenols, vitamin C and other constituents, as anti-

*e-mail: [email protected] 1 USDA National Nutrient Database available on-line: https://www.nal.usda.gov.

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oxidant compounds, play a crucial role in the prevention of diseases of civilization [Arscott and Tanumihardjo 2010]. Systematic supplementation of the human diet with carrot is facilitated by the availability of the fresh roots in convenient “cut and peeled” packages, as well as the processing of the roots to make a wide spectrum of products, including frozen, canned or dried cubes or slices, juices, concentrates, pickles, preserves, etc. The genetic factor has the greatest impact on the nutritional quality of carrot [Hussain et al. 2008, Kim et al. 2010, Singh et al. 2012]. Flavor and industrial quality depend on the cultivar, environment, and cultivar-environment interaction [Da Silva et al. 2007]. Cultivation method seems to have only a minor influence on quality in comparison with genetic and climate-related factors [Seljasen et al. 2013]. The level of biologically active components also depends on harvest maturity and storage conditions [Gajewski et al. 2009]. Root morphological parameters may be the first determinant of biological value and processing usefulness of carrot cultivars. In the roots, carotenoids are mainly accumulated as large crystals inside chromoplasts, particularly abundant in the secondary phloem of the root, the so-called cortex, as compared with the secondary xylem or core [Kim et al. 2010, Nahimana et al. 2011]. Furthermore, Zgórska and Grudzińska [2009] determined a 10-times greater nitrate content in the core as compared with the cortex. Because of the high accumulation of carotenoids and low nitrates in the secondary phloem of the cortex, cultivars with smaller core diameter compared with the cortex are the most valuable on the fresh

vegetable market and for processing usefulness. Many investigations have been carried out to determine precisely the connections between features determining carrot quality. Hussain et al. [2008] proved a high positive correlation between leaf dry weight, whole plant dry weight and leaf area and root dry weight, and a negative correlation between rootshoot ratio and root dry weight. Those authors concluded that with an increase in the proportion of assimilates partitioned to the roots, yield decreased. Sękara et al. [2012] showed that some parameters characterizing the processing usefulness of carrot can be predicted on the basis of morphological features, i.e. core diameter and root mass. Da Silva et al. [2007] found optimal correlations between root cylindrical form and minerals, and soluble and insoluble alimentary fibers, and proposed the use of these properties to differentiate carrot cultivars. The processing industry has high requirements as regards the quality of the initial product. It is an important theoretical and practical problem to determine dependencies between morphology, chemical composition and parameters determining the processing usefulness of carrots, as a basis for the breeding and evaluation of carrot genotypes. According to Gajewski et al. [2009], carrot cultivars for processing should be characterized by high carotenoid and sugar but low nitrate content, and proper centrifugal leakage or rehydration parameters determining minimally processed product quality. One of the commonly used methods of carrot preservation is dehydration by hot drying, resulting in substantial reduction in weight and vol-

Evaluation of selected Polish carrot cultivars for nutritive value and processing...

ume, thus minimizing packaging, storage and transport costs [Baysal et al. 2003]. Dehydrated slices, cubes and strips of carrot are used as ingredients in different sectors of the food industry. Loss of water and heating cause stresses in the cellular structure of the cube, leading to change in shape and decrease in dimension [Mayor and Sereno 2004]. Even though more severe heat treatment may result in a decrease in carotenoid content [Chandler and Schwartz 1988], Baysal et al. [2003] showed that mild heat treatment, for example steam blanching, protects carotenoids from degradation and isomerization. Another method of carrot preservation which avoids carotenoid damage is freezing [Kidmose et al. 2004]. Drying methods and conditions affect the quality of the product, including volume and shape changes, differently; it has been shown to be possible to use a shape factor to describe the effects of drying methods and conditions on the deformation of carrot cubes [Panyawong and Devahastin 2007]. Changes in the ratio of the surface area to the volume with water content have been found to be practically independent of drying conditions but dependent on the sample geometry [Ratti 1994]. Sękara et al. [2012] used the rehydration ratio together with poured and specific volume to describe the quality of dried carrot cubes. Poured volume characterizes the efficiency of dehydrated carrot storage and packaging, while specific volume quantifies dry product porosity and rehydrating properties. A high rehydration ratio indicates good possibilities of tissue structure reconstruction after drying. The low rehydration ratio is the main problem with

5

dehydrated carrot products [Baysal et al. 2003]. The aim of the present investigation was to evaluate the quality of selected Polish carrot breeding lines and cultivars through the assessment of morphological and chemical features together with minimally processed carrot cube quality, evaluated by centrifugal leakage of the deep frozen product, rehydration ratio, and poured and specific volume of the dehydrated product. A determination was also made of the interaction effects between the analyzed parameters.

MATERIAL AND METHODS Experiment design The experiment was carried out at the Vegetable Experimental Station of the University of Agriculture in Krakow, Poland (50º04′N, 19º51′E). The soil was classified as a typical brown type, a grey brown subtype of stabilised fluvial alluvium, silt loam lying on medium-heavy soil, underlain by very fine sandy soil. The climate of the experimental station, located in southern Poland, is humid continental (Dfb) according to Köppen’s classification. The object of the investigations was carrot (Daucus carota L.) in Polish breeding lines and cultivars: ‘Draco F1’ (PlantiCo Hodowla i Nasiennictwo Ogrodnicze, Poland), ‘A02’, ‘B01’, ‘F03’, ‘N04’ (Polska Hodowla i Nasiennictwo Ogrodnicze, INWARZ-PNOS Sp. z o.o. Reguły, Poland), ‘NOE 606’, ‘NOE 808’ (Hodowla i Nasiennictwo Ogrodnicze Sp. z o.o. Spójnia, Poland). The genotypes listed were chosen for investigation on the basis of suggestions of Polish breeders.

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A. Sękara et al.

Sowing took place on 21 April 2008 and 18 April 2009. Seeds were treated with Thiuram (Organica-Azot, Jaworzno, Poland). Plants were cultivated on standard ridges in two rows at a spacing of 8 × 4 cm. The distance between the centers of ridges was 67.5 cm, and the height of a ridge was 30 cm. The experimental plot was a section of a 3-m-long ridge, which included 150 plants. The experiment was established in three replications. Fertilizers were applied to maintain the content of available nutrient forms at the level recommended for the carrot, calculated based on a soil analysis, which showed: pH [H2O] 6.2; organic carbon content 2%; and nutrient content (mg·dm–3; in 2008 and 2009, respectively): N-NH4 35.0 and 23.2; N-NO3 38.5 and 21.0; P 59.0 and 47.5; K 147 and 191; Mg 113 and 84; Ca 1287 and 778. Data concerning the mean monthly temperature and total rainfall during the vegetation seasons of 2008 and 2009 are presented in Table 1. April, July, August, and September 2008 were slightly colder, and May and June warmer, compared with 2009. In 2008 the highest total rainfall was recorded in July, and in 2009 in June. Manual harvesting was performed on 2 October 2008 and 28 September

2009. Directly after harvesting the root length, the diameter of 1 cm below the top and 1 cm above the base, and the diameter of the core on a cross-section made at one half of the root length, were measured on 20 roots in three replications. On the basis of the root measurements, two shape indices were calculated to describe precisely the shape of the roots: (i) the slenderness index, defined as the ratio between the root length and the root top diameter; (ii) the taper index, being the ratio of the root top diameter to the base diameter. Chemical analysis Directly after harvesting randomly selected roots were subjected to analysis. All laboratory analyses were made in three repetitions. The roots were washed under running tap water, drained, manually peeled (1 mm), topped and tailed (1.0 to 1.5 cm) and homogenized. The dry matter content was determined by drying at 105°C until constant weight was attained. Total soluble sugars were determined by the anthrone method [Yemm and Willis 1954]. The total carotenoid content was determined by the modified Lichtenthaler and Wellburn method [1983] after ethanol extraction,

TABLE 1. Monthly mean temperature and total rainfall in the experimental years Month

2008

2009

Temperature (°C)

Sum of rainfall (mm)

Temperature (°C)

Sum of rainfall (mm)

April

9.8

15

11.9

1

May

14.5

76

13.3

91

June

18.7

23

15.5

128

July

18.9

134

19.5

83

August

18.6

47

18.9

53

September

12.8

65

15.1

35

Evaluation of selected Polish carrot cultivars for nutritive value and processing...

at 470 nm, with a Helios Beta spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., USA). Nitrate ion content in the plant material was determined using an Orion® 920A ion-selective pH-meter (Thermo Electron Corp., USA) after extraction in 0.02 M Al2(SO4)3 18H2O. The content of soluble solids in the juice was determined with a digital refractometer and expressed in °Bx. Processing usefulness assessment The washed and peeled roots were cut into cubes (10 × 10 × 10 mm). The cubes were carefully mixed, blanched (95°C for 4 min), cooled to 20°C, drained, and then subjected to freezing and drying. Three 400 g samples from each genotype were stored in polyethylene bags (–20°C for 4 weeks) in a 2 MXP300 laboratory deep freezer [Danfoss, Denmark]. Centrifugal leakage was assessed as the percentage decrease in defrosted material mass after centrifuging of samples (2000 g for 10 min in 20°C) with an MPW-351 centrifuge (MPW Med, Poland). Three 400 g samples from each genotype were convection-dried (50°C for 12 h) in a drying oven (Binder, Germany). The dried samples were stored in polyethylene bags (20°C for 4 weeks) until rehydration. Twenty randomly chosen pieces of the dried samples were weighed (M1) and placed in a glass with 100 ml of distilled water at 20°C and allowed to rehydrate for 24 h, the surplus water was removed with absorbent paper, and then the samples were weighed (M2). The rehydration ratio (R) was determined as the water absorbed (g) by 1 g of dried material, calculated using the equation R = (M2 – M1) / M1.

7

The poured volume (Vp) and specific volume (Vs) were determined as the volume taken up by 1 kg of dry solids with and without air pores respectively. A known mass of sample (M) was poured into a glass measuring cylinder and the total volume was evaluated by reading the scale of the cylinder (V1). The poured volume was calculated using the equation Vp = V1 / M. A known mass of sample (M) was immersed in a known volume of distilled water (Vc) in a measuring cylinder, and the dry solids volume (V2) was read off the scale of the cylinder. The specific volume (Vs) was calculated using the equation Vs = (V2 – Vc) / M. The data were expressed as the volume of the sample (dm3) per 1 kg. All of the data obtained were subjected to one-way ANOVA, and the difference of the means was compared by the HSD Tukey test at P = 0.05. Simple correlation coefficients were calculated between the investigated quality parameters. Equations for predicting the processing indices as functions of independent morphological and chemical variables were obtained with the use of a multiple regression method.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Minimally processed carrot cube is a raw material used in many branches of the food industry to supply the market with high-quality convenience products, popular mainly in developed countries. Quality management in the processing industry specifies requirements for the production sector concerning the morphological, physical and chemical

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A. Sękara et al.

characteristics of carrot root. Genotypes with long, uniform roots of cylindrical shape are the most valuable in terms of reduction of waste. The cortex should make up most of the root weight, because of the higher content of carotenoids and sugars and lower content of nitrates in the cortex as compared with the core [Zgórska and Grudzińska 2009, Kim et al. 2010]. In the present study we used two indices to precisely describe the shape of carrot roots. ‘Drako F1’ and ‘F03’ formed the longest roots, with a conecylinder shape, returning the lowest slenderness indices and highest taper indices (Table 2). ‘NOE 808’ had roots with a similar cone-cylinder shape, but the roots were significantly shorter than those of ‘Drako F1’. The highest slenderness indices and lowest taper indices were found for cylinder-shaped roots such as ‘A02’ and ‘NOE 606’. The correlation matrix showed that positive correlation existed between the root length and carotenoid content for all investigated cultivars, although Kidmose et al. [2004] did not find a significant effect of root size on the content of α- and β-carotene, even though the content seemed to decrease

with increasing root size. A positive correlation between root length and carotenoid content, and a negative correlation with nitrate content, were also reported by Sękara et al. [2012]. Rodriguez-Concepcion and Stange [2013] showed that at later stages of carrot development, secondary root growth resulted in a dramatic enlargement and boosted production of carotenoids in the chromoplasts of the secondary phloem, which is an explanation for the observed correlation between root size and carotenoid content. Nahimana et al. [2011] investigated drying and radial shrinkage characteristics and changes in the color and shape of the carrot cortex as compared with the core, during air drying. Better color, higher chroma and lower whitening index were determined for the cortex tissue. In the present study, all genotypes with the exception of ‘F03’ had roots with a higher percentage of cortex tissues. We also showed a negative correlation between slenderness index and core diameter, and a positive one between taper index and core diameter; hence roots with cylindrical shape were characterized by a small core. Da Silva et al. [2007] compared

TABLE 2. Root morphological indices (means for 2008–2009) Root shape indices

Root length (cm)

Core share (% of root diameter)

slenderness

taper

17.91 a

40.7 ab

6.11 d

1.27 a

B01

18.14 a

44.8 bc

5.51 cd

1.44 ab

Drako F1

22.32 b

42.3 ab

5.29 abc

1.69 bc

F03

20.64 ab

56.8 d

4.80 ab

1.83 c

N04

18.26 a

39.7 ab

5.32 bc

1.36 a

NOE 606

20.57 ab

36.8 a

5.94 cd

1.25 a

NOE 808

18.99 a

42.3 ab

4.64 a

1.91 c

19.54

44.34

5.63

1.54

Cultivar A02

Mean

*Values in columns marked with the same letter do not differ significantly at P = 0.05.

Evaluation of selected Polish carrot cultivars for nutritive value and processing...

carrot cultivars with cylindrical roots, but they did not find a significant correlation between root length and its physical, sensory and chemical properties. The dry matter content was the highest in the roots of ‘N04’ and ‘B01’, with the mean value for all analyzed genotypes equal to 12.47% (Table 3). Similar values were obtained by Fikselová et al. [2010] for four carrot cultivars grown in three regions of Slovakia, and by Sękara et al. [2012] for 10 Polish carrot cultivars. In the present investigation the significant dry matter was positively correlated with soluble sugars and solid content. This is in accordance with the results of Pokluda [2008], who confirmed a significant positive correlation between dry matter and sugar content in carrot. Da Silva et al. [2007] described a correlation between soluble solids and dry matter content on the basis of an evaluation of four carrot cultivars grown in Brazil. ‘B01’ and ‘N04’ had the highest levels of soluble sugars and soluble solids (Table 3). There were slight differences in carotenoid content between the investigated genotypes; only ‘N04’, ‘B01’ and ‘NOE 606’ had a higher carotenoid con-

9

tent than ‘A02’. The mean levels of the aforementioned parameters were slightly higher than those published by the USDA National Nutrient Database from 2013 (on-line access: https://www.nal. usda.gov). Trajer and Swiderski [2009] suggested that the high content of carotenoids and low content of undesirable compounds, especially nitrates are major indicators of the high nutritional value of carrot roots. The permissible level of nitrates in vegetables for the Polish market is defined only for lettuce and spinach (2000–4000 mg NO3·kg–1 FM) and food for children (200 mg NO3·kg–1 FM) [Dziennik Ustaw 136, 2010]. We determined 201.3–521.4 mg NO3·kg–1 FM in the roots of the investigated carrot genotypes, the lowest content being found in ‘F03’ and ‘N04’. Carrot cube is a valuable component of frozen and canned vegetable products. Its quality is determined by a low value of cell sap leakage during defrosting resulting from slight tissue destruction during frosting. To describe this parameter we use the centrifugal leakage measurement, because free leakage of cell sap was not observed for all investigated genotypes

TABLE 3. Root biochemical indices (means for 2008–2009) Cultivar A02

Carotenoids Nitrates Soluble solids Dry matter Soluble sugars (°Brix) (%) (mg·100 g–1 FM) (mg·100 g–1 FM) (mg NO3–·kg–1 FM) 11.81 ab

5.38 a

12.74 a

413.6 ab

8.83 a

B01

13.40 c

6.86 c

15.75 b

403.7 ab

10.77 c

Drako F1

12.24 b

5.88 c

14.79 ab

366.9 ab

8.37 a

F03

11.20 a

5.80 c

14.20 ab

201.3 a

9.67 b

N04

14.10 c

7.97 c

16.41 b

269.1 a

11.60 d

NOE 606

12.46 b

5.53 b

15.30 b

311.8 ab

9.02 ab

NOE 808

12.07 b

5.72 b

14.72 ab

521.4 b

9.00 ab

12.47

6.16

14.84

355.4

9.61

Mean

For explanation see Table 2.

10

A. Sękara et al.

during cube defrosting. Cubes of ‘NOE 808’ had the lowest values of this parameter, and can be regarded as the best material for frosting on the basis of this parameter, while ‘A02’ and ‘Drako F1’ had significantly the highest values (Table 4). Centrifugal leakage was negatively correlated with root length, soluble solids and carotenoid content, and positively – with nitrate content (Table 5). Similar observations were made by Sękara et al. [2012] for 10 Polish carrot genotypes, where centrifugal leakage values were negatively correlated with features indicating the high biological value of roots. Carrot cube is also used for the production of drying material, a valuable semi-finished product in many sectors of the processing industry. The course of the moistening of dry material, crucial for the final quality of the dehydrated product, is dependent on tissue structure regeneration after drying. To precisely describe dry carrot cube quality we used three indices: the rehydration ratio; the poured volume, indicating the efficiency of dried product packaging and storage; and the specific volume, which quantifies dry product porosity and rehydrat-

ing properties. The greatest capacity for drying, based on the highest values of the rehydration ratio, was found for ‘N04’, ‘NOE 606’, ‘A02’ and ‘F03’. The same genotypes, together with ‘B01’ and ‘Drako F1’, exhibited the lowest poured volume, indicating the greatest usefulness for packaging and storage. Dried cubes of ‘N04’ and ‘F03’ had the highest poured volumes among all investigated cultivars. ‘F03’ had a higher specific volume than ‘A02’. Baysal et al. [2003] found that the color of dried carrot most resembled the fresh product after hot air drying, whereas its rehydration capacity was then the lowest: infrared dehydrated carrot had the best rehydration capacity. The present investigation did not confirm the correlation between carotenoid content and the rehydration ratio of the dried product. Another important consequence of shrinkage is the decrease in the rehydration capability of the dried product [Mayor and Sereno 2004]. Analysis of the correlation matrix from the present experiment did not show any connection between the rehydration ratio and the poured and specific volume of frozen and dried carrot cube.

TABLE 4. Processing indices of deep frozen and dried carrot cube (means for 2008–2009) Centrifugal leakage (%)

Rehydration ratio (g H2O·g–1)

Poured volume (dm3·kg–1 DM)

Specific volume (dm3·kg–1 DM)

A02

19.53 b

5.81 ab

2.23 a

0.57 a

B01

15.00 ab

4.60 a

2.13 a

0.66 ab

Drako F1

19.17 b

4.63 a

2.26 a

0.62 ab

F03

16.09 ab

5.52 ab

2.79 b

0.77 b

N04

15.79 ab

6.37 b

2.71 b

0.68 ab

NOE 606

14.58 ab

5.82 ab

2.28 a

0.60 ab

NOE 808

12.07 a

4.48 a

2.26 a

0.75 ab

16.03

5.32

2.38

0.66

Cultivar

Mean

For explanation see Table 2.

0.31*

0.24

–0.16

0.07

0.03

–0.14

–0.04

–0.14

–0.10

0.32*

0.30

–0.03

0.16

–0.13

–0.19

0.14

–0.44**

1.00

SI

–0.01

0.23

–0.09

–0.34*

–0.09

–0.22

0.23

–0.09

–0.33*

1.00

TI

–0.01

–0.20

–0.10

0.01

0.61***

0.17

0.23

0.72***

1.00

DM

0.01

0.02

–0.17

–0.17

0.60***

–0.18

0.19

1.00

SSu

N

–0.35* –0.20 –0.41**

–0.61*** 0.67***

0.34*

0.21

–0.68*** 0.64***

0.54***

–0.71*** 1.00

1.00

C

–0.16

0.29*

0.11

–0.35*

1.00

SSo

0.58***

–0.02

0.16

1.00

CL

–0.06

0.72***

1.00

RR

0.01

1.00

PV

1.00

SV

* p ≤ 0.05, **p ≤ 0.01, ***p ≤ 0.001. RL – root length, CD – core diameter, SI – slenderness index, TI – taper index, DM – dry matter, SSu – soluble sugars, C – carotenoids, N – nitrates, SSo – soluble solids, CL – centrifugal leakage, RR – rehydration ratio, PV – poured volume, SV – specific volume.

–0.32*

SV

–0.27

CL

0.02

–0.15

SSo

0.20

–0.48*** –0.13

N

PV

0.31*

C

RR

0.01

SSu

–0.35*

0.31*

–0.39*

1.00

0.49***

0.01

SI

–0.22

0.06

CD

CD

DM

1.00

RL

TI

RL

×

TABLE 5. Coefficients of correlation (r) between morphological, biochemical and processing parameters of carrot quality, N = 48

12

A. Sękara et al.

CONCLUSIONS It has been shown that genotype was the main determinant of the biological value of the investigated Polish carrot breeding lines and cultivars, which were characterized by high quality and processing usefulness. ‘NOE 606’ formed roots of attractive shape, cylindrical with a small core. ‘N04’ was the cultivar with the highest biological value according to the analyzed chemical characteristics, especially with its high content of dry matter, soluble sugars, carotenoids and soluble solids, and low accumulation of nitrates. ‘NOE 808’ produced frozen cube of the best quality; N04’, ‘A02’ and ‘NOE 606’ showed the greatest suitability for drying. Root length was positively correlated with carotenoid content, but negatively with nitrate level. The investigated Polish-bred carrot genotypes showed statistically significant differences in morphological and chemical features and in parameters characterizing minimally processed product quality, making it possible to choose the best material for particular types of use. Acknowledgment The project was partially supported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; Decision HOR hn-4040 dec-5/08 MRiRW.

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BAYSAL T., ICIER F., ERSUS S., YILDIZ H. (2003). Effects of microwave and infrared drying on the quality of carrot and garlic. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 218: 68–73 CHANDLER L.A., SCHWARTZ S.J. (1988). Isomerization and losses of trans-β-carotene in sweet potatoes as affected by processing treatments. J. Agric. Food Chem. 36: 129–133. Da SILVA E.A., VIEIRA M.A., VIEIRA E.A., DE MELLO R.D., AMBONI C., AMANTE E.R., TEIXEIRA E. (2007). Chemical, physical and sensory parameters of different carrot varieties (Daucus carota L.). J. Food Process Eng. 30: 746–756 Dziennik Ustaw 136 (2010). Obwieszczenie Marszałka Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 29 czerwca 2010 r. w sprawie ogłoszenia jednolitego tekstu ustawy o bezpieczeństwie żywności i żywienia. Poz. 914. FIKSELOVÁ M., MAREĈEK J., MELLEN M. (2010). Carotenes content in carrot roots (Daucus carota L.) as affected by cultivation and storage. Veg. Crops Res. Bull. 73: 47–54. GAJEWSKI M., WĘGLARZ Z., SEREDA A., BAJER M., KUCZKOWSKA A., MAJEWSKI M. (2009). Quality of carrot grown for processing as affected by nitrogen fertilization and harvest term. Veg. Crops Res. Bull. 70: 135–144. HUSSAIN S.I., HADLEY P., PEARSON S., HIDAYATULLAH (2008). Genetic variability of carrots. I. Effect of sowing dates on quality and growth characteristic in carrot (Daucus carota L.) cultivars. Pakistan J. Agric. Res. 21(1–4): 54–64. KIDMOSE U., HANSEN S.L., CHRISTENSEN L.P., EDELENBOS M., LARSEN E., NØRBÆK R. (2004). Effects of genotype, root size, storage, and processing on bioactive compounds in organically grown carrots (Daucus carota L.). J. Food Sci. 69(9): 388–394. KIM J.E., RENSING K.H., DOUGLAS C.J., CHENG K.M. (2010). Chromoplast ultrastructure and estimated carotene content in root secondary phloem of dif-

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ferent carrot varieties. Planta 231: 549– –558. LICHTENTHALER H.K., WELLBURN A.R. (1983). Determinations of total carotenoids and chlorophylls a and b in leaf extracts by different solvents. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 11: 591–592. MAYOR L., SERENO A.M. (2004). Modelling shrinkage during convective drying of food materials: a review. J. Food Eng. 61: 373–386. METZGER B.T., BARNES D.M. (2009). Polyacetylene diversity and bioactivity in orange market and locally grown colored carrots (Daucus carota L.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 57(23): 11134–11139. NAHIMANA H., MUJUMDAR A.S., ZHANG M. (2011). Drying and radial shrinkage characteristics and changes in color and shape of carrot tissues (Daucus carota L.) during air drying. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 10(68): 15327–15345. PANYAWONG S., DEVAHASTIN S. (2007). Determination of deformation of a food product undergoing different drying methods and conditions via evolution of a shape factor. J. Food Eng. 78(1): 151–161. POKLUDA R. (2008). Content of dry matter, carotenoids and reducing sugars in selected vegetables. Ann. UMCS 18(1), Sectio EEE: 1–9. RATTI C. (1994). Shrinkage during drying of foodstuffs. J. Food Eng. 23: 91–105. RODRIGUEZ-CONCEPCION M., STANGE C. (2013). Biosynthesis of carotenoids in carrot: An underground story comes to light. Archiv. Biochem. Biophys. 539(2): 110–116. SĘKARA A., KALISZ A., CEBULA S., GRABOWSKA A. (2012). The quality and processing usefulness of chosen Polish carrot cultivars. Acta Sci. Pol., Hortorum Cultus 11(5): 101–112. SELJASEN R., KRISTENSEN H.L., LAURIDSEN C., WYSS G.S., KRETZSCHMAR U., BIRLOUEZ-ARAGONEE I. (2013). Quality of carrots as affected by pre- and postharvest factors and processing. J. Sci. Food Agric. 20(93): 2611–2626.

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SHARMA K.D., KARKI S., THAKUR N.S., ATTRI S. (2011). Chemical composition, functional properties and processing of carrot – a review. J. Food Sci. Technol. 49(1): 22–32. SINGH D.P., BELOY J., MCINERNEY J.K., DAY L. (2012). Impact of boron, calcium and genetic factors on vitamin C, carotenoids, phenolic acids, anthocyanins and antioxidant capacity of carrots (Daucus carota). Food Chem. 132: 1161–1170 TRAJER J., ŚWIDERSKI A. (2009). Using cluster analysis for examining carrot varieties diversity. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Agriculture 54: 71–76. YEMM E.W., WILLIS A.J. (1954). The estimation of carbohydrates in plant extracts by anthrone. Biochem. J. 57(3): 508–514. ZGÓRSKA K., GRUDZIŃSKA M. (2009). Rozmieszczenie azotanów w różnych częściach wybranych warzyw i w bulwach ziemniaka. Biul. Nauk. 30: 103–108. Streszczenie: Ocena wartości odżywczej i przydatności przetwórczej wybranych odmian marchwi polskiej hodowli – badania wstępne. W krajach wysokorozwiniętych istnieje obecnie duże zapotrzebowanie na wysokiej jakości produkty warzywne, przygotowane w formie gotowej do spożycia. Marchew należy do najważniejszych gospodarczo warzyw w Polsce ze względu na wysoką jakość biologiczną i dużą wartość przetwórczą. Hodowla marchwi w Polsce jest ukierunkowana na tworzenie nowych odmian spełniających wysokie wymagania rynku warzyw świeżych i przemysłu przetwórczego. Celem prezentowanych badań była ocena jakości polskich linii hodowlanych i odmian marchwi pod względem przydatności produkcji minimalnie przetworzonego produktu, jakim jest mrożona i suszona kostka. Eksperyment przeprowadzono w latach 2008 i 2009 na Uniwersytecie Rolniczym w Krakowie. Obiektem badań były linie hodowlane i odmiany marchwi polskiej hodowli (‘A02’, ‘B01’, ‘Drako F1’, ‘F03’, ‘N04’, ‘NOE 606’, ‘NOE 808’). Oceniono cechy morfologiczne i chemiczne korzeni oraz jakość minimalnie przetworzonej kostki marchwiowej. ‘NOE 606’ wytworzyła korzenie

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o cylindrycznym kształcie i małym udziale rdzenia w średnicy korzenia. ‘N04’ charakteryzowała największa wartość biologiczna, określona na podstawie składu chemicznego korzeni, szczególnie wysokiego poziomu suchej masy, cukrów rozpuszczalnych, karotenoidów, ekstraktu oraz słabej akumulacji azotanów. ‘NOE 808’ była najlepszym surowcem do produkcji mrożonej kostki najwyższej jakości. ‘N04’, ‘A02’ i ‘NOE 606’ wykazały największą przydatność do suszenia. Długość korzenia spichrzowego była pozytyw-

nie skorelowana z zawartością karotenoidów, ale negatywnie – z poziomem azotanów. Wykazano również korelacje między pozostałymi z analizowanych parametrów. Genotypy marchwi polskiej hodowli charakteryzowała bardzo duża wartość biologiczna, a istotne różnice w poszczególnych parametrach opisujących jakość materiału świeżego i minimalnie przetworzonego mogą posłużyć do wytypowania linii dedykowanych do konkretnego sposobu wykorzystania na rynku warzywnym.

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 35, 2014: 15–23 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 35, 2014)

Response of 33 weed species germination to allelocompounds contained in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) DOROTA CIARKA, MARTA STANKIEWICZ-KOSYL*, MARIKA SZTYBER, HELENA GAWRONSKA, STANISŁAW W. GAWRONSKI

Laboratory of Basic Research in Horticulture, Faculty of Horticulture, Biotechnology and Landscape Architecture, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Abstract: Response of 33 weed species germination to allelocompounds contained in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). The inhibitory effect of sunflower on weeds has been reported in the literature, but most studies deal with a limited number of species. The objective of this work was to study the effect of allelocompounds contained in leaf extracts (at five concentrations: 1.25, 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10% DM w/v) of the ‘Ogrodowy’ variety of sunflower on the germination of 33 weed species. In response to allelocompounds derived from sunflower, the germination of the weeds, with few exceptions, was delayed and reduced, with complete inhibition in some cases. The response depended on the weed species and on the concentration used. Among weed species, the greatest reduction was observed for Papaver rhoeas L., with full inhibition recorded at a concentration of just 5% DM w/v. Complete inhibition was also found for other weed species, but at higher concentration. By contrast, almost no inhibitory effect of sunflower allelocompounds was recorded for Vicia cracca L. and Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. Key words: germination, Helianthus annuus L., Piper Index, phytotoxicity, aqueous extract, weed species

INTRODUCTION Allelopathic effects on agro-ecosystems and on their exploitation in agriculture have been considered [Bárberi 2002, Bhowmik and Inderjit 2003] with regard *e-mail: [email protected]

to using crops known for their strong allelopathic potential [Wu et al. 1999] as an alternative strategy for weed management [Weston 1996]. There are already several examples of crops being used for satisfactory weed suppression with minimal or even zero herbicide use [Hoffman et al. 1996a,b, Leather 1983a]. One of the crops often listed among species that exhibit strong allelopathic activity is sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) [Irons et al. 1982, Leather 1983a, b, Leather 1987, Purvis 1990, Purvis and Jones 1990, Narwal 1999, Batish et al. 2002, Azania et al. 2003]. Although the inhibitory effect of sunflower on weeds is quite well documented [Leather 1983a, b, Morris and Parrish 1992, Macias et al. 1999], most authors deal with a relatively limited number of species, while the list of weeds accompanying crops in the field is usually quite long. Moreover, the results obtained so far are sometimes contradictory, which might be due to (i) differing experimental conditions, and/or (ii) the use of different genotypes of both donors and acceptors of allelochemicals. Besides, local populations of the same species can differ in terms of both the allelopathic activity of the donor plants

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and in the responses of acceptors. Therefore, it seems to be important to perform a comparative study with a wide range of weed species under the same conditions using a donor plant with the same genetic background. The objective of this work was to evaluate the response of 33 weed species to allelochemicals contained in aqueous extracts of leaves of the ‘Ogrodowy’ variety of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) under uniform experimental conditions.

MATERIAL AND METHODS A total of 33 weed species, commonly occurring among cereal crops in Central Europe, were used as acceptors of allelocompounds, and sunflower as their donor. The following weed species were tested: Achillea millefolium L. (8), Aegopodium podagraria L. (13), Amaranthus retroflexus L. (17), Anthemis arvensis L. (28), Apera spica-venti (L.) Beauv. (21), Avena fatua L. (14), Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medicus (22), Centaurea cyanus L. (30), Chenopodium album L. (15), Cirsium arvense L. (12), Consolida regalis Gray (29), Convolvulus arvensis L. (16), Daucus carota L. (18), Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. (33), Elymus repens (26), Conyza canadensis L. (5), Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Hérit (2), Galeopsis tetrahit L. (23), Galium aparine L. (3), Lamium purpureum L. (6), Matricaria inodora L. (25), Papaver rhoeas L. (1), Polygonum convolvulus L. (9), Polygonum persicaria L. (7), Raphanus raphanistrum L. (19), Rumex crispus L. (4), Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv. (20), Sinapis arvensis L. (31), Stellaria media

(L.) Vill. (24), Taraxacum officinale Weber (27), Thlaspi arvense L. (10), Vicia cracca L. (32), and Viola arvensis Murray (11). For the sake of simplicity, in Figure 1, each scientific name has been assigned a number (in parentheses). The allelopathic activity of sunflower on the tested weed species was evaluated based on the effect of water-extracted allelochemicals in a germination biotest. For the extracts, air-dried (denoted here as DM) leaves of field-grown sunflower of the ‘Ogrodowy’ variety were used. The extracts were prepared as described by Ciarka et al. [2009]. Weed seeds were placed on Petri dishes layered with filter paper moistened with 5 ml of extract at five concentrations (1.25, 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10% DM w/v) and with water only (control). The seeds were cultured in a cabinet, in darkness, for 14 days at 20 or 25°C (the tested weed species naturally germinate at different times of the vegetation season, thus in the experiment different temperatures were applied for germination). Germinating seeds were counted daily and removed. Due to the natural uneven germination of the weeds, the data are expressed as percentages of the number of seeds germinating in H2O (the control). For each weed species and extract concentration, six replicates were used, with 100 seeds per replication (Petri dish). With regard to the large number of Petri dishes needed for evaluation of the 33 weed species and the five concentrations (more than 1000 dishes in total) the tests were performed in several series. To ensure the comparability of results between series, fresh extracts were prepared for every series, and germination

Response of 33 weed species germination to allelocompounds...

in H2O (the control) was conducted in parallel with each series. The results obtained were analysed statistically using the ANOVA function of Statgraphics Plus 4.1 (Statistical Graphics Corp., USA), and differences between combinations were estimated by Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test. Values of HSD or indices (following values) are given when the differences were significant at P ≤ 0.05. Data are presented as mean ±SE, n = 6.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results showed that the germination of all 33 tested weed species was

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affected by allelochemicals contained in aqueous extracts of the ‘Ogrodowy’ variety of sunflower. With few exceptions, germination was delayed and reduced. However, the range of these responses depended on the weed species and the concentration. In response to leaf extracts, on average for the five concentrations used, 18 out of 33 weed species germinated at a rate of below 25% compared with germination under control conditions (Fig. 1). A further 13 species germinated at a rate of between 25 and 50%, but two species, V. cracca and E. crus-galli, were only slightly affected, with 81% germination, comparable to germination in

FIGURE 1. Germination of 33 weed species in the presence of allelochemicals contained in aqueous extracts of leaves of the ‘Ogrodowy’ variety of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) evaluated during 14 days of culture. Due to natural uneven weed germination, the data are expressed as percentages of the number germinating in the control (H2O). Significant differences were estimated by Tukey’s HSD test at P ≤ 0.05. Data are given as the average for all five concentrations, ±SE, n = 6 with 100 seeds in each

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H2O (Fig. 1). It is noteworthy that at the highest concentration of extract, the reduction in seed germination was strong for almost all of the tested weed species (Table 1). The greatest reduction in germination was recorded for P. rhoeas, for which the average germination rate for all concentrations was 6.9% (compared with the control), and already at a concentration of 5% germination was fully inhibited. Complete inhibition of germination was also observed for other weed species, but at higher concentrations (13 species at 7.5% and 18 species at 10%) – Table 1. The effect of allelochemicals contained in stem extracts was evidently weaker for all tested species. On average for all concentrations used, only two weed species – P. rhoeas and D. carota – germinated at a rate below 25%, and for a further 19 species the rate was between 25 and 50%. Allelochemicals derived from sunflower stems hardly influenced V. cracca and S. arvensis, as these germinated at a rate of 86%. It is interesting to note that germination of E. crus-galli, which was only slightly inhibited by leaf extracts, was in fact stimulated in the presence of stem extract in concentrations of 1.25 and 2.5% DM w/v (35.6 and 7% more seeds germinated than in the control). At the same concentrations a slight stimulation of germination was also recorded for C. regalis (data not shown). These results correspond well to those of Leather [1983a], who similarly showed not only that sunflower stem extract was less effective than leaf extract, but that in some cases weed germination was even stimulated.

On the other hand, the results of the present study, except in the case of E. crus-galli, do not support the conclusions that seeds of grass weeds are unaffected by sunflower [Leather 1983b] or that sunflower is less effective against species of the family Poaceae [Azania et al. 2003]. In our study the germination rate (on average for five concentrations) of four species of the family Poaceae – E. repens, A. spica-venti, S. glauca and A. fatua – was reduced, by an amount ranging from 71.6 to 78.9% depending on species in the case of leaf extracts (Fig. 1). With the highest extract concentrations, seeds of these four species either did not germinate at all or else germination was very strongly reduced (by 82–96%). The results for the noxious weed E. crus-galli, which also belongs to the family Poaceae, are in agreement with results reported by Azania et al. [2003] and Leather [1983b]. It is noteworthy that allelopathic effects depend also on the organs used for extract preparation. In another study performed by us it was clearly shown that the negative impact of allelochemicals derived from stems, petioles and inflorescences, in terms of both reduction and delay of seed germination, was less evident than in the case of leaf extracts (data not presented). Narwal [1999], in a review of sunflower allelopathy, reported that aqueous extracts from sunflowers inhibited the germination of the following weed species: A. theophrasti L., D. stramonium L., Ipomoea spp., Brassica kaber Wheeler, Trianthema portulacastrum L., Amaranthus viridis L., Portulaca oleracea L., Flaveria australasica L.

Response of 33 weed species germination to allelocompounds...

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TABLE 1. Germination of 33 weed species in the presence of allelochemicals contained in aqueous extracts of leaves of the ‘Ogrodowy’ variety of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), at five extract concentrations, evaluated during 14 days of culture Weed species Papaver rhoeas Erodium cicutarium Galium aparine Rumex crispus Erigeron canadensis Lamium purpureum Polygonum persicaria Achillea millefolium Polygonum convolvulus Thlaspi arvense Viola arvensis Cirsium arvense Aegopodium podagraria Avena fatua Chenopodium album Convolvulus arvensis Amaranthus retroflexus Daucus carota Raphanus raphanistrum Setaria glauca Apera spica-venti Capsella bursa-pastoris Galeopsis tetrahit Stellaria media Matricaria inodora Elymus repens Taraxacum officinale Anthemis arvensis Consolida regalis Centaurea cyanus Sinapis arvensis Vicia cracca Echinochloa crus-galli

1.25 17.1 b 38.6 b 37.5 c 34.0 d 26.9 d 26.6 c 43.1 c 44.6 c 41.9 c 56.4 b 51.6 b 54.2 c 51.8 c 54.3 c 40.6 c 38.5 c 73.9 c 65.1 b 63.7 c 57.7 c 58.6 d 52.7 c 64.4 d 71.8 b 63.1 d 49.6 c 59.8 d 64.7 d 76.8 a 87.4 a 80.8 c 93.3 c 89.4 a

Concentration of air-dried leaves (% DM w/v) 2.5 5.0 7.5 17.1 b 0.0 a 0.0 a 1.4 a 1.1 a 0.0 a 10.4 b 4.7 ab 0.4 a 18.2 c 3.0 b 0.0 a 19.5 c 9.6 b 0.0 a 18.6 bc 10.8 b 0.0 a 22.0 b 2.4 a 0.0 a 26.2 b 9.0 a 0.0 a 27.5 bc 18.1 b 0.0 a 45.8 b 36.5 b 0.0 a 38.7 b 9.0 a 1.3 a 37.2 b 9.2 a 0.5 a 37.9 bc 13.9 a 0.0 a 37.1 c 13.2 b 0.9 a 34.9 c 17.1 b 14.7 b 29.6 bc 29.0 bc 17.4 ab 44.3 b 5.1 a 0.0 a 48.7 b 9.6 a 0.0 a 39.0 b 16.0 a 5.8 a 51.2 c 19.7 b 4.3 a 37.4 c 21.2 bc 14.0 ab 34.7 b 30.1 b 18.4 b 51.8 c 15.9 b 5.8 a 55.1 b 15.3 a 0.0 a 42.8 c 13.6 bc 12.7 ab 34.8 c 32.0 b 20.3 a 36.0 c 32.7 c 19.6 b 50.7 c 31.0 b 8.5 c 54.1 a 49.3 a 25.7 a 67.6 a 40.9 b 10.4 c 68.6 c 48.8 b 25.6 a 86.8b c 81.0 abc 77.6 ab 87.3 a 83.1 a 79.0 a

10.0 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 6.3 a 6.5 a 0.0 a 0.0 a 6.3 a 1.0 a 4.1 a 0.0 a 0.5 ac 0.0 a 10.3 a 8.7 a 0.6 a 2.7 c 0.0 a 2.7 c 10.3 a 66.8 a 66.9 a

Due to natural uneven weed germination, the data (mean of six replicates with 100 seeds in each) are expressed as percentages of the control (H2O). Values for a given weed species followed by different letters differ significantly according to Tukey’s HSD test at P ≤ 0.05. Highest and lowest values are bolded.

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The allelopathic effect of sunflower extract was demonstrated also by changes in the dynamics of weed germination. A delay in germination in response to allelochemicals derived from sunflower was noted for all tested weed species, with a few exceptions at lower concentrations. According to Piper Index values, the number of days needed for one seed to germinate in H2O ranged from 2.1 to 8 days depending on weed species, while for those exposed to allelochemicals it ranged from 3.8 to 11 days (leaf extract) – Table 2. It must be taken into consideration that at the higher extract concentrations, some species did not germinate at all during the entire experiment (14 days of culture). For leaf extract, at just 2.5% DM w/v for E. cicutarium, and at 5% DM w/v for E. cicutarium, P. rhoeas and P. persicaria, the PI was not determined because of lack of germination. At the higher extract concentrations (7.5 and 10% DM w/v) no PI was determined for 18 and 21 weed species respectively. At the highest extract concentrations at which germination took place, the greatest delay in germination was recorded for A. retroflexus (by 5.6 days), and the smallest for A. spica-venti and E. crus-galli (by 1 day), when compared with the respective controls (Table 2). In the case of stem extract, values of PI were not determined only for 1 and 9 weed species at concentrations of 7.5 and 10% respectively. The greatest delay was observed in the case of A. retroflexus, for which one seed took as much as 7.2 days longer to germinate than in H2O. The smallest delay in the presence of stem extract was recorded for S. arvensis, where germination was delayed only by 0.1 day (data not shown).

The reduction and delay in weed germination reported here can be attributed to chemical, most often toxic, effects of compounds contained in the extracts, this being the basis of the phenomenon of allelopathy. This assumption is based on results of other studies performed at our laboratory, which attempted to evaluate certain physical properties of the extracts used: osmotic potentials, pH, viscosity and EC. Those results showed that changes in the above parameters, along with increased extract concentration, could not generate such severe responses. Moreover, in accompanying studies, mustard germination in the presence of NaCl and PEG 8000, at osmotic potentials corresponding to the extracts used, was reduced either very slightly (by less than 10%) or not at all. Therefore, we may conclude that the negative impact of aqueous extracts of sunflower, as recorded in this study, has a chemical, toxic mode of action, this being the basis of the phenomenon of allelopathy (data not shown, paper in preparation). Delays in weed seed germination in response to allelochemicals based on observations have been reported in the literature [Narwal 1999, Xuan and Tsuzuki 2004], but an evaluated and statistically analysed delay expressed in number of days, particularly in the case of sunflower, is according to our best knowledge reported here for the first time.

CONCLUSIONS 1. Allelocompounds derived from sunflower leaf extracts, at the concentrations used, generate allelopathic stress leading to delayed and reduced germination.

Response of 33 weed species germination to allelocompounds...

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TABLE 2. Values of Piper Index for 33 weed species seeds germinated in the presence of allelochemicals contained in aqueous extracts from leaves of the ‘Ogrodowy’ variety of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) Weed species Achillea millefolium Aegopodium podagraria Amaranthus retroflexus Anthemis arvensis Apera spica-venti Avena fatua Capsella bursa-pastoris Centaurea cyanus Chenopodium album Cirsium arvense Consolida regalis Convolvulus arvensis Daucus carota Echinochloa crus-galli Elymus repens Erigeron canadensis Erodium cicutarium Galepsis tetrahit Galium aparine Lamium purpureum Matricaria indora Papaver rhoeas Polygonum convolvulus Polygonum persicaria Raphanus raphanistrum Rumex crispus Setaria glauca Sinapis arvensis Stellaria media Taraxacum officinale Thlaspi arvense Vicia cracca Viola arvensis

Control (H2O) 5.8 a 7.0 a 2.1 a 5.6 a 7.3 a 4.9 a 8.0 a 5.1 a 4.9 a 5.5 a 7.2 a 4.4 a 5.0 a 3.6 a 6.6 a 5.0 a 4.0 a 6.8 a 7.7 a 4.3 a 7.5 a 4.0 a 6.1 a 5.5 a 4.6 a 5.9 a 7.0 a 2.9 a 5.3 a 5.8 a 6.6 a 4.6 a 7.3 a

Concentration of air-dried leaves (% DM w/v) 1.25 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 6.0 a 6.2 a 6.5 a n.d.1 n.d. 7.4 ab 7.7 ab 8.2 b n.d. n.d. 4.3 ab 7.5 b 7.7 b n.d. n.d. 6.3 ab 6.6 ab 6.6 ab 7.6 b 7.8 b 7.5 a 7.6 ab 8.0 b 8.3 b 8.3 b 5.3 ab 5.8 bc 6.6 c n.d. n.d. 8.9 ab 8.9 ab 9.1 b 9.5 b n.d. 5.2 a 5.3 a 5.3 a 5.8 a 6.6 a 6.7 b 7.1 bc 7.4 bc 7.6 c 7.8 c 5.7 a 5.8 a 6.0 a n.d. n.d. 7.6 ab 7.8 ab 10.4 b n.d. n.d. 6.5 ab 6.6 ab 7.2 b 7.9 b 8.1 b 8.5 b 8.9 b 8.9 b n.d. n.d. 3.9 ab 4.2 ab 4.3 ab 4.6 b 4.6 b 7.0 a 7.0 a 7.2 a n.d. n.d. 5.2 a 6.4 ab 7.3 b n.d. n.d. 4.3 a n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 7.4 a 7.5 a 7.9 ab 8.8 b n.d. 8.8 a 8.9 a 11.9 b n.d. n.d. 7.8 b 8.5 b 8.6 b n.d. n.d. 8.7 ab 8.7 ab 9.2 b 9.3 b 9.6 b 5.0 b 5.4 b n.d. n.d. n.d. 6.2 a 7.2 ab 7.7 b n.d. n.d. 6.8 ab 7.3 b n.d. n.d. n.d. 5.3 ab 5.4 ab 5.7 ab 6.2 ab 6.7 b 6.3 a 7.0 a 7.3 a n.d. n.d. 7.9 ab 7.8 ab 7.9 ab 8.0 ab 11.0 b 3.8 ab 3.9 ab 4.1 b 5.7 c 5.8 c 5.7 a 6.2 ab 8.8 b 8.8 b 8.9 b 6.0 a 6.6 a 6.6 a 6.7 a n.d. 8.3 b 8.5 b 9.4 c n.d. n.d. 6.3 b 6.5 bc 6.5 bc 7.3 c 7.5 c 8.2 a 8.7 a 9.0 a n.d. n.d.

n.d. – not determined. Values for a given weed species followed by different letters differ significantly according to Tukey’s HSD test at P ≤ 0.05. Highest and lowest values are bolded.

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2. The 33 evaluated weed species significantly differ in their range of response to sunflower leaf extract allelocompounds, with Erodium cicutarium and Papaver rhoeas being most affected and Echinochloa crus-galli and Vicia cracca least affected. 3. The response to water-extracted allelocompounds of all tested weed species showed a dependence on concentration. Acknowledgment The research was financed by grants awarded to S.W. Gawronski: 1/5 FP EU # QLK5 CT–2000-01418 (part for Polish Partner) and 2/SC for SR # 117/E-985 SPUB-M/5 PR UE/DZ172/2001-2004, and supported by the Warsaw Plant Health Initiative of REGPOT within the framework of 7FP EU # 286093. The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions for improving the quality of this paper.

REFERENCES AZANIA A.A.P.M., AZANIA C.A.M., ALVES P.L.C.A., PALANIRAJ R., KADIAN H.S., SATI S.C., RAWAT L.S., DAHIYA D.S., NARWAL S.S. (2003). Allelopathic plants. 7. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Allelopathy J. 11(1): 1–20. BÁRBERI P. (2002). Weed management in organic agriculture: are we addressing the right issues? Weed Res. 42: 177–193. BATISH D.R., TUNG P., SINGH H.P., KOHLI R.K. (2002). Phytotoxicity of sunflower residues against some summer season crops. J. Agron. Crop Sci. 188: 19–24. BHOWMIK P.C., INDERJIT (2003). Challenges and opportunities in implement-

ing allelopathy for natural weed management. Crop Prot. 22: 661–671. CIARKA D., GAWRONSKA H., SZAWLOWSKA U., GAWRONSKI S.W. (2009). Allelopathic potential of sunflower. I. Effects of genotypes, organs and biomass partitioning. Allelopathy J. 23: 95–110. HOFFMAN M.L., WESTON L.A., SNYDER J.C., REGNIER E.E. (1996a). Separating the effects of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and rye (Secale cereale) root and shoot residues on weed development. Weed Sci. 44: 402–407. HOFFMAN M.L., WESTON L.A., SNYDER J.C., REGNIER E.E. (1996b). Allelopathic influence of germinating seeds and seedlings of cover crops on weed species. Weed Sci. 44: 579–584. IRONS S.M., BURNSIDE O.C. (1982). Competitive and allelopathic effects of sunflower (Helianthus annuus). Weed Sci. 30: 372–377. LEATHER G.R. (1983a). Weed control using allelopathic crop plants. J. Chem. Ecol. 9(8): 983–989. LEATHER G.R. (1983b). Sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) are allelopathic to weeds. Weed Sci. 31: 37–42. LEATHER G.R. (1987). Weed control using allelopathic sunflowers and herbicide. Plant Soil 98: 17–23. MACIAS F.A., VARELA R.M., TORRES A., MOLINILLO J.M.G. (1999). Potentiality of cultivar sunflowers (Helianthus annuus L.) as a source of natural herbicide templates. In: Inderjit et al. (Eds) Principles and Practices in Plant Ecology: Allelochemical Interactions. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida, US, pp. 531–550. MORRIS P.J., PARRISH D.J. (1992). Effects of sunflower residues and tillage on winter wheat. Field Crop Res. 29: 317–327. NARWAL S.S. (1999). Allelopathy in weed management. In: S.S. Narwal (Ed.) Allelopathy Update, vol. 2, Basic and Applied Aspects. Science Publishers, Enfield, NH, USA, pp. 203–254.

Response of 33 weed species germination to allelocompounds...

PURVIS C.E. (1990). Differential response of wheat to retained crop stubbles. I. Effect of stubble type and degree of decomposition. Aust. J. Agr. Res. 41: 225–242. PURVIS C.E., JONES G.P.D. (1990). Differential response of wheat to retained crop stubbles. II. Other factors influencing allelopathic potential; intraspecific variation, soil type and stubble quantity. Aust. J. Agr. Res. 41: 243–251. WESTON L.A. (1996). Utilization of allelopathy for weed management in agroecosystems. Agron. J. 88: 860–866. WU H., PRATLEY J., LEMERLE D., HAIG T. (1999). Crop cultivars with allelopathic capability. Weed Res. 39: 171–180. XUAN T.D., TSUZUKI E. (2004). Allelopathic plants: Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.). Allelopathy J. 13(2): 137–148.

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Streszczenie: Reakcja 33 gatunków chwastów na allelozwiązki pochodzące ze słonecznika (Helianthus annuus L.). Słonecznik jest wymieniany w literaturze jako roślina o silnym potencjale allelopatycznym w stosunku do chwastów, większość doniesień dotyczy jednak ograniczonej liczby ich gatunków. Celem pracy była ocena efektu allelozwiązków zawartych w wyciągach z liści (w pięciu stężeniach: 1,25, 2,5, 5, 7,5 i 10% s.m. m/v) słonecznika odmiany ‘Ogrodowy’ na kiełkowanie 33 gatunków chwastów. W reakcji na allelozwiązki pochodzące ze słonecznika kiełkowanie chwastów, z wyjątkiem kilku gatunków, było opóźnione i obniżone, a w niektórych przypadkach całkowicie zahamowane. Reakcja zależała od gatunku chwastu i stężenia wyciągu. Przy obu typach wyciągów natężenie efektu inhibicyjnego było proporcjonalne do stężenia. Spośród ocenianych gatunków chwastów najsilniej zareagował Papaver rhoeas L., którego kiełkowanie zostało całkowicie zahamowane już przy stężeniu 5%. Efekt taki został osiągnięty również dla innych gatunków chwastów, ale przy wyższych stężeniach. Jednakże dla Vicia cracca L. i Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. jedynie niewielki efekt hamujący wyciągów został zaobserwowany.

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 35, 2014: 25–38 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 35, 2014)

Avenue trees – esthetic preferences and safety EDYTA ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA*, DOROTA WOJTYNA

Department of Landscape Architecture, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Abstract: Avenue trees – esthetic preferences and safety. In the planning of avenue trees, various criteria are taken into account, including esthetics and safety. Although the safety aspect is much debated, there is little research into the actual perception of trees as potentially hazardous. The aim of this paper is to answer the following question: are trees with potentially hazardous features intuitively rejected? It is hoped to understand what kind of criteria are considered in the assessment of trees’ attractiveness, and whether one can speak of intuitive recognition of the risk posed by trees with impaired static properties. A survey was carried out among a group of 110 respondents, of whom 10% had professional experience with avenue trees. The questionnaire took the form of a graphical presentation consisting of three parts: (a) 18 sets of black-and-white silhouette models of single trees standing by the road; (b) 3 visualizations of trees in an avenue setting; and (c) 3 real photographs in full color with different roadside arrangements (presence of large trees, small trees, and low vegetation). The first 21 sets contrasted stable trees with trees of impaired stability. The results showed that trees with structural defects and potentially hazardous features (tall trees with widespread, asymmetrical crowns and ill-formed forks) were considered more attractive. The only hazardous features considered unattractive were unnatural lean and high slenderness. Key words: avenue trees, safety, esthetic preferences, hazard tree, tree assessment

INTRODUCTION Many criteria are taken into consideration when planning avenue trees; espe*e-mail: [email protected]

cially important are the aspects of safety and esthetics. As regards safety, opinions are divided, for some see road trees as an advantage and others as a disadvantage. Most research on the safety issue concerns the features of trees that influence their stability and can lead to accidents; there has been little or no research into the perception of trees as potentially hazardous. When considering the function of avenue trees, many factors are taken into account, including safety and esthetics among others. The basic function of a road of any kind is to enable its users to arrive quickly and safely at their destination. The trees should in no way endanger road users or hinder their journey. More and more publications are appearing which discuss rules governing the proper choice of tree species in correlation with the condition of a given road or street [Borowski and Latocha 2006], and there are also many publications advising on the arrangement of forestation so that it optically improves the traffic, warns about dangers, prevents dazzle and driver weariness, and protects from storms [Reda and Hrynkiewicz-Sudnik 1999, Oleksyn 2007, Szczepanowska 2010]. Guidance is also given with regard to safety measures, including the avoidance of trees prone to failure, with widespread crowns [Haber 2001] or with

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structural defects which impair their stability [Coder 2000, Rosłon-Szeryńska and Sikorski 2011]. In planning and arranging the areas around roads and streets, esthetics are equally important. Much research shows that in their choice of trees, people consider the safety aspect in correlation with tree species that are well-known to them and are associated with their family home. There are a few evolutionary esthetic approaches, such as those of Orians [1980] or Sommer and Summit [1996], according to which society prefers a landscape of savannah and trees with widespread crowns typical of Acacia species. On the other hand, Schroeder [2006] claims that residents prefer smaller and slower-growing trees, while according to Williams’s [2002] survey respondents prefer medium-sized trees with widespread crowns. Researchers only occasionally consider the question that will be addressed here: are people aware of the dangers connected with trees’ stability, or do they intuitively prefer trees with beneficial structural features and shape which decrease the risk of breakage and failure? Rosłon-Szeryńska and Sikorski [2011] researched the issue of trees’ safety and exposure in forestations. The aim of this paper is to investigate social preferences towards trees in correspondence with features responsible for their stability. It is hoped to understand what kind of criteria are considered in the assessment of trees’ attractiveness, and whether one can speak of intuitive recognition of the risk posed by trees with impaired static properties.

MATERIAL AND METHODS The survey was carried out among a group of 110 people, of whom 90% were chosen randomly. The remaining 10% were chosen among people with knowledge of the principles of the planting of avenue trees (even though the actual percentage of such people in the general population would be slightly lower), in order to investigate whether this group would assess the attractiveness of trees with awareness of safety, or would rather evaluate the two aspects separately. For the purpose of the survey, an anonymous questionnaire was made available online in the form of a graphic presentation. The presentation consisted of three parts, each with three types of graphics to be evaluated, presenting: (a) black-and-white silhouette models of single trees standing by the road; (b) visualization of trees in an avenue setting; and (c) real photographs showing three ways of arranging the side of the road (presence of large trees, small trees, and low vegetation). The models used in the first two parts were prepared in Adobe Photoshop [Wojtyna 2012] on the basis of models of hazard trees likely to break or fail, according to the WID method of Rosłon-Szeryńska [2006, 2012]. The trees were not meant to represent any specific species, in order to avoid choices influenced by sentiment for well-known trees, e.g. from childhood; additionally, a uniform background was used to minimize the influence of other factors. The sets presenting particular features/defects were randomly placed in the questionnaire, one per page, and the trees with correct stability were randomly placed on the right or left side of the page. In each case,

Avenue trees – esthetic preferences and safety

respondents were asked to pick a tree/avenue which seemed the most attractive to them. The response was meant to be quick and intuitive. The respondents had no knowledge that the survey was connected with the issue of safety. The first part of the presentation included 18 sets of single trees with opposite features. In each case a tree with no crown defects was placed together with a tree presenting a high chance of breakage or failure. The following features were chosen for the evaluation, on the basis of a thorough analysis of critical literature concerning this subject [Rosłon-Szeryńska 2006]: • height – measured from the bottom of the trunk to the peak of the crown. A height of 8 m was assumed safe, while a height of above 20 m exposes the tree to twice as much pressure from the wind [Sinn 1983, Niklas and Spatz 2000] – Figure 1; • slenderness – the ratio of H to D, where H stands for height and D stands for the trunk’s diameter measured at a height of 1.3 m from the base of the trunk. Safe trees have a slenderness value lower than 20, whereas for

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hazardous trees it is higher than 50 [Sinn 2000] – Figure 2; • crown’s force resistance – based on Coder [2000], hazardous trees have a cylinder-shaped crown (force resistance parameter ≥0.625) while safe trees have a cone (0.333) or neiloid (≤0.250) shaped crown (Fig. 3); • lean – measured by the degree of inclination from the vertical. According to the scale of Zajączkowski [1991], a natural lean cannot exceed 45º (Fig. 4), and an unnatural lean should not be higher than 10º (Fig. 5); • crown shape – the classification of Coder [2000] was used, according to which safe trees are arrow-shaped with a clear central leader and branches bending at an angle of not more than 40–45º; moreover branches and boughs should not be more than half the thickness of the leader (Fig. 6). Certain features which have a significant influence on tree stability (wood decay, damaged roots, cracks in the trunk) were omitted, for the reason that they are difficult to present graphically and assess on the basis of photographs.

20 m

8m

2m

3m

FIGURE 1. Example of a set with trees varying in height. Tree without foliage with safe height (1) and hazardous height (2). The slenderness criterion remains the same for both trees

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H/D = 55

H= 10 m

H= 10 m

H/D = 18

D= 0,55 m

D= 0,18 m

FIGURE 2. Example of a set with trees varying in slenderness, in correspondence to tree statics: within the safe range (1), and hazardous (2). The remaining features (height, crown shape) are the same

force resistance (0,875)

force resistance (0,125)

FIGURE 3. Example of a set with trees presenting high wind force resistance (1) and low wind force resistance (2). Both examples include trees with foliage, for the reason that force resistance is much lower without. The height of the trees is 10 m, and the slenderness value is 22

≥ 50°

0°

FIGURE 4. Example of a set with two asymmetrical trees, one straight (2) and one with a critical lean of 50º indicating a likely failure (1). The height of both trees is 10 m, and the slenderness value is 18

Avenue trees – esthetic preferences and safety

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≥ 20°

FIGURE 5. Example of a set with a well-shaped tree (1), contrasted with a tree with unnatural lean of 20º (2). The height of both trees is 10 m, and the slenderness value is 22

S1

S1 S2

B1 S3 B2 B3

Ø B1; B2; B3 ≤ 0,5 x Ø S1

S4

Ø S2; S3 > 0,5 x Ø S1

~90°

FIGURE 6. Example of a set with trees without foliage and with crowns of varying build. One of the trees is well-shaped (1), whereas the other has too thick branches, competing leaders and ill-formed forks (2). The height of both trees is 10 m, and the slenderness value remains within the safe range (20 and 18)

The models show trees varying in one feature (i.e. height), or in several connected features (i.e. defects of the crown shape, high force resistance and height) (Figs 7–8). In order to increase the reliability of the results, two or three sets of trees were prepared for each case (for each feature and group of features). The results of the survey are verified in the second part of the questionnaire, which contrasts trees in an avenue setting that have no structural defects with trees that have a large number of defects (are

too tall, too slender, ill-shaped with high force resistance of the crown). The features foregrounded in this case are height, crown shape, and structural defects of the boughs. The first two sets present trees of varying height (20 and 8 m). The third set presents trees of the same height, where well-structured trees are contrasted with trees with ill-formed silhouettes (competing leaders and horizontal boughs that are too thick) – Figure 9. The final part of the questionnaire aimed to the separate the issues of safety

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S1

H= 8 m

H= 20 m

S2

S3 ~90° Ø S2; S3 > 0,5 x Ø S1

FIGURE 7. Example of a set with a tree of seemingly stable silhouette (2) and a tree likely to break (1) due to extensive height, ill-structured forks, competing leaders and hazardous lean

S1 S2

H= 8 m

H= 12 m

force resistance (0,125)

Ø S2 > 0,5 x Ø S1

FIGURE 8. Example of a set with an evergreen with a safe, cone-shaped silhouette (2) and an asymmetrical, leaning tree with ill-formed forks and competing leaders (1)

FIGURE 9. Set with trees of the same height and varying crown structure, with (1) aerodynamic and (2) defective structure (D. Wojtyna)

Avenue trees – esthetic preferences and safety

and attractiveness. Three photographs of roads with large trees, small trees or low vegetation growing alongside were presented together, in order to assess how the sense of road esthetics changes depending on the adjacent trees or lack thereof, and how this relates to the feeling of safety (Figs 10–12). The photographs presented below represent existing roads of a similar quality, without center lines, shoulder or sidewalks. It was assumed that all photographs present a visually attractive reality. Respondents were tasked

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FIGURE 12. Road with open view, devoid of forestation

with grading the photographs based on their attractiveness and safety. A three-point scale was used, where one stood for attractive or safe, and three for unattractive or unsafe, where both criteria were evaluated separately.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION FIGURE 10. Road with large trees that are structurally defective and situated close to the edge of the road

FIGURE 11. Road with small trees that show a tendency to develop ill-formed forks, but are situated a safe distance from the road

The results concerning esthetic preferences in relation to tree height showed that the majority of respondents prefer tall trees (76–81%). Similar results were obtained in the group of respondents with professional experience/knowledge of avenue trees (70%). With the sets where height was one of several varying features, 65 to 75% of respondents chose taller trees. The trend continued in the second part of the survey (with trees in an avenue setting), with the majority of respondents choosing taller trees (72 and 85%). It should be noted that the presence or absence of tree foliage had some influence on the assessment. In the sets of trees varying only in height there were 10% fewer tall trees chosen if they had no foliage, whereas in the sets

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presenting more than one varying feature (tree silhouette or asymmetric shape of the crown) the number of tall trees was 20% lower (Fig. 13). The results of the third part of the survey also confirmed the aforementioned preference. As far as slenderness was concerned, the majority of respondents preferred trees within the safe range (H/D ≤ 20). Only 13% found highly slender trees attractive. Trees with a dangerously thin trunk relative to the mass of the crown and tree height were always rejected. Also trees with an unnatural lean of 20° were not favored by respondents, as 90% chose vertical trees. However, this pref-

erence changed in the case of trees with a natural lean, where respondents slightly more often (56%) chose trees with a high lean rather than vertical ones (Fig. 14). The results concerning esthetic preferences regarding trees with varying crown surface showed that trees with a widespread and dense crown (and thus with high wind force resistance) are considered more attractive. This preference was not highly dominant for the first set, where a cylindrical crown (preferred by 56%) was contrasted with a coneshaped crown. However, the trend was clearly visible in the case of the second set, presenting a tree with a widespread

FIGURE 13. Preference results for trees in an avenue setting varying in height: part 1 – simple sets varying in one feature (height); part 2 – complex sets varying in several features (height, crown shape and force resistance, and tree silhouette)

FIGURE 14. Preference results in relation to trees’ lean (natural and unnatural) and slenderness (% of votes)

Avenue trees – esthetic preferences and safety

crown (preferred by 71%) and a tree with a neiloid-shaped crown. Finally, in the third set, which presented trees varying in two features (crown force resistance and ill-formed shape of the boughs), the preference for defective trees was most visible (77% preferred trees with defects) – Figure 15. The assessment of tree crowns varying in shape showed similar tendencies. Crowns with defects that could indicate a hazard were found by respondents to be more attractive. There was a clear tendency to choose trees with picturesque, widespread crowns and ill-formed boughs with many leaders and forked

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branches. The assessment of the same tree presented in different locations (single tree – part 1; avenue setting – part 2) differed only by one response. As few as 23.5% of respondents preferred trees with a stable build. When trees with and without foliage are compared, more respondents chose well-structured trees if no foliage was present (36%). It is important to note, however, that within that group most of the respondents had previous knowledge of dendrology. Among the respondents with specialist knowledge of trees, 87% chose safe trees (Fig. 16).

FIGURE 15. Preference results for trees in an avenue setting in relation to crown build (high or low force resistance)

FIGURE 16. Preference results in relation to crown shape. Part 1 – set with trees without foliage present, a outbranching tree contrasted with an arrow-shaped tree (one dominant stem); part 2 – trees with foliage present, well-formed contrasted with structurally defective trees; part 3 – trees from part 2 in an avenue setting

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Depending on the set, a large number of respondents preferred highly defective trees; even among the group that had professional experience with avenue trees the choice tended towards large trees with multiple features that could indicate risk of failure. The results were similar for the sets presenting conifers. The vast majority preferred larger trees with asymmetrical crown, leaning silhouette and competing leaders. Ovaland cone-shaped silhouettes of small trees were not attractive (Fig. 17). The last part of the survey concerned the varying structure of vegetation on the side of the road (trees of safe or hazardous height, or absence of trees). The results show that the assessment of attractiveness is inversely proportional to the safety of the evaluated trees. The

photograph presenting a road with large trees was considered highly attractive by 70.9% of respondents (mean score 2.13); however it also received the lowest score in terms of subjective feeling of safety (mean score 1.45). Exactly the opposite result was obtained for the photograph of a street with no surrounding trees, which received the highest score in terms of safety (mean score 1.95), and lowest in terms of attractiveness (mean score 145). The last photograph, presenting a road with small trees, received quite a high score for attractiveness, with 63 respondents (mean score 1.65) considering it a very attractive scenario (Fig. 18). Only 7.3% of respondents assessed the road as hazardous, which is a similar result to that for the road with no trees present (6.4%). The results were slightly differ-

FIGURE 17. Preference results for conifers and for trees in an avenue setting: trees with several structural defects contrasted with well-formed trees

FIGURE 18. Mean score of responses assessing the attractiveness and the safety of roads with varying configurations of plants at the roadside

Avenue trees – esthetic preferences and safety

ent among respondents who had previous experience with avenue trees. Only one of these respondents assessed the road with large trees as hazardous, and 40% regarded it as very hazardous. Nobody graded the roads with small trees or no trees as hazardous. Figure 19 shows the number of respondents whose assessment of attractiveness in correlation with the five selected tree features was consistent with tree safety. The distribution of the data from the survey was analyzed, and the esthetic preferences of respondents were investigated in correlation with five criteria of tree hazard assessment (slenderness, height, forks and sweeps, leaning, and crown shape).

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Significant differences were noted in the numbers of respondents within each of and between the five groups (Chi2 = 82.55, p = 0.00). Therefore, safe trees were not always rated as attractive. The most consistent correspondence between attractiveness and safety is visible in the assessment of trees with varying slenderness. A great majority of respondents recognized as attractive the trees with favorable (low) H/D. On the other hand, the assessment of trees with varying tree crown resistance parameters shows large discrepancies between tree attractiveness and safety. Most of the respondents found attractive the trees with a (high-valued) crown resistance factor indicating risk of breakage or windthrow.

FIGURE 19. Tree assessment score distribution for five safety features of trees in correlation with attractiveness (Chi2 = 82.55; p = 0.000)

FIGURE 20. Tree assessment score distribution for three safety features of trees in correlation with attractiveness (Chi2 = 1.701; p = 0.427)

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E. Rosłon-Szeryńska, D. Wojtyna

Figure 20 shows the number of respondents whose assessment of attractiveness in correlation with the three selected tree features was consistent with tree safety. There are no statistically significant differences in the group numbers. The safety of trees according to the selected features is significant (Chi2 = 1.701, p = 0.427). The assessment of trees in correlation with tree height, lean and crown defects produced similar numbers in each group. In this case 29–38% chose the safe trees. It was concluded that a majority of respondents consider trees with structural defects or features indicating potential hazard to be more attractive; this corresponds to the results obtained by Orians [1980], who concluded that people prefer trees which can be easily climbed on – leaning, with irregular, pendulous crowns. Similar results have also been presented by Sommer and Summit [1996, 1997], who claim that there is a preference for trees with round and spread crowns rather than cone- or arrow-shaped ones. On the other hand, research by Williams [2002] shows a strong tendency to choose trees of medium size, which is in disagreement with this and other research indicating a clear preference for tall trees.

CONCLUSIONS It has been shown that both people with professional knowledge and experience regarding trees, and those who have no knowledge of dendrology, perceive structurally defective trees as more visually appealing. Trees with a crown resistance factor indicating risk of breakage or windthrow were found to be attractive by a majority of respondents. This trend

is found in the case of assessment of both individual silhouettes and groups of avenue trees. Nevertheless, one can note an intuitive rejection of trees with certain negative features relating to tree statics, such as unnatural lean and high slenderness. It is important to note that the presence or absence of foliage can alter assessments of trees’ attractiveness somewhat. Preferences shift towards defective trees when foliage is present. The assessment of roads with differing states of vegetation (small or large trees or without any trees) shows that roads with tall, large trees are considered most attractive, but also most hazardous. Only respondents with knowledge of dendrology do not identify tall trees as highly dangerous. The results show that the well-formedness of a tree’s silhouette is not important for the assessment of attractiveness, and moreover there is no correlation between the perception of safety and attractiveness. Although this form of research does not give the most reliable results, as trees can be perceived differently in direct contact, it still provides an overview of the way in which people perceive trees and which features are the most desirable. There are quite clear tendencies to choose trees that are picturesque, large, and with widespread crowns, rather than well-shaped, straight and safe trees. The height of trees is very significant for their assessment, with a clear preference for tall trees. The results of the survey confirm that although the issue of safety is important in spatial planning, it should not be the sole factor determining the planting of trees. Other important factors should not

Avenue trees – esthetic preferences and safety

be overlooked, including the environmental, esthetic and health-related values of trees.

REFERENCES BOROWSKI J., LATOCHA P. (2006). Dobór drzew i krzewów do warunków przyulicznych Warszawy i miast centralnej Polski. Rocznik Dendrologiczny 54: 83–93. CODER K.D. (2000). Tree Biomechanics series. University of Georgia School of Forest Resources. Extension Publications FOR 00-13 to 32. HABER Z. (2001). Kształtowanie terenów zieleni z elementami ekologii. Wydawnictwo Akademii Rolniczej im. Augusta Cieszkowskiego, Poznań. NIKLAS K.J., SPATZ H.C. (2000). Wind-induced stresses in cherry trees: Evidence against the hypothesis of constant stress levels. Trees: Structure and Function 14(4): 230–237. OLEKSYN H. (2007). Kompozycje roślinne w kształtowaniu terenów zieleni. Wydawnictwo Akademii Rolniczej, Poznań. ORIANS G.H. (1980). Habitat selection: general theory and applications. In: The Evolution of Human Social Behavior. J.S. Lockard (Ed.). Elsevier North Holland Inc., New York. REDA P., HRYNKIEWICZ-SUDNIK J. (1999). Drzewa alejowe. Materiały z konferencji naukowej, 28-29 maj 1999 r. VIII Targi Zieleni Miejskiej i Ogrodnictwa. Wyd. TARAGRA’99. ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA E. (2006). Opracowanie metody oceny zagrożenia powodowanego przez drzewa o osłabionej statyce. Doctoral thesis, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW. ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA E., SIKORSKI P. (2011). Wybrane problemy zarządzania drzewostanem w parkach miejskich, cz. 2. Bezpieczeństwo a ekspozycja drzew.

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Zeszyty Problemowe Postępów Nauk Rolniczych 562: 197–205. ROSŁON-SZERYŃSKA E. (2012). Ocena zagrożenia bezpieczeństwa ludzi i mienia przez drzewa o osłabionej statyce. Uprawa i ochrona drzew 27. Czasopismo Międzynarodowego Towarzystwa Uprawy i Ochrony Drzew, Kluczbork. SCHROEDER H., FLANNIGAN J., COLES R. (2006). Residents’ Attitudes Toward Street Trees in the UK and U.S. Communities. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 32(5): 236–246. SINN G. (1983). Standsichercheit von Baumen und Moglichkeiten der statischen Berechnung. Das Gartenamt 32/83. Arbeitsstelle für Baumstatik: AfB website: http://www.baumstatik.de/pages/frames/ frame_baumstatik.html. Accessed 2004. SINN T. (2000). Biostatische Baumkontrolle fachgerecht, schnell und sicher. T2. Hinweisende Symptome. Stadt und Grünn 7: 702–708. SOMMER R., SUMMIT J. (1996). Cross-national ranking of tree shape. Ecological Psychology 8(4): 327–341. SZCZEPANOWSKA H.B. (2010). Drzewa przydrożne a bezpieczeństwo ruchu. In: K. Worobiec, I. Liżewska (Eds). Aleje przydrożne: historia, znaczenie, zagrożenie, ochrona, Olsztyn: Borussia; Stowarzyszenie na rzecz Ochrony Krajobrazu Kulturowego Mazur “Sadyba”. WILLIAMS K. (2002). Exploring resident preferences for street trees in Melbourne, Australia. Journal of Arboriculture 28(4): 161–169. ZAJĄCZKOWSKI J. (1991). Odporność lasu na szkodliwe działanie wiatru i śniegu. Wyd. Świat, Warszawa. Streszczeniey: Drzewa alejowe – preferencje estetyczne a bezpieczeństwo. W kształtowaniu drzew alejowych stosuje się różne kryteria, wśród nich ważne znaczenie ma aspekt bezpieczeństwa i estetyki. Choć kwestia bezpieczeństwa budzi wiele kontrowersji, to jednak rzadko prowadzi się badania dotyczące postrzegania drzew potencjalnie niebezpiecznych. Celem niniejszego artykułu

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jest odpowiedź na pytanie, czy drzewa posiadające cechy sprzyjające złamaniom są intuicyjnie odrzucane przez użytkowników. Jest to próba zbadania, czy społeczeństwo w ocenie atrakcyjności drzew kieruje się kryteriami związanymi z bezpieczeństwem i czy można mówić o instynktownym rozpoznaniu zagrożeń powodowanych przez drzewa o osłabionej statyce. Wykonano badanie sondażowe dotyczące preferencji estetycznych drzew w grupie 110 respondentów, wśród których 10% ankietowanych deklarowało doświadczenie zawodowe związane z drzewami przyulicznymi. Kwestionariusz został przygotowany w formie prezentacji z grafikami drzew i składał się z trzech części: (a) 18 zestawów czarno-białych sylwetek drzew pojedynczych przedstawionych

w relacji wysokościowej do skali człowieka; (b) 3 wizualizacje alei drzew w odcieniach szarości; (c) 3 realne fotografie dróg z poboczem porośniętym przez duże drzewa, małe drzewa i rośliny zielne. W pierwszych 21 arkuszach zestawiano drzewa stabilnej sylwetce i osłabionej stabilności. Przeprowadzone badania wykazały, że za atrakcyjniejsze wizualnie uznaje się drzewa z wadami budowy. Preferowane są drzewa wysokie, z rozłożystą, stawiającą duży opór wiatrom koroną oraz z wadliwymi rozwidleniami. Jedyne cechy uznawane za nieatrakcyjne i jednocześnie wskazujące na ryzyko złamania to nienaturalne pochylenie i wysoki współczynnik smukłości drzewa. Niniejsze opracowanie jest przyczynkiem do szczegółowych badań w tym zakresie.

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 35, 2014: 39–51 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 35, 2014)

Allotment gardens in former Eastern Bloc countries – a comparative study of spatial policy in Tallinn and Warsaw HANNA SZUMILAS*

Department of Landscape Architecture, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Abstract: Allotment gardens in former Eastern Bloc countries – a comparative study of spatial policy in Tallinn and Warsaw. This paper is based on the results of a Short Time Scientific Mission under COST Action TU1201 Urban Allotment Gardens in European Cities – Future, Challenges and Lessons Learned, which was completed in October 2013 at the Estonian University of Life Sciences. During a stay of two weeks in Tartu and Tallinn I collected data about the planning of allotment gardens both on a national scale and at city level (Tallinn). The data allowed me to compare the results from the STSM with results of research carried out in Warsaw in Poland. Current trends in many European countries show that allotment gardens are again very popular. The main aim of this paper is to describe differences and similarities in the development of allotment gardens in the capital cities of Estonia and Poland. I was interested in examining the situation in two former Eastern Bloc countries where in the past allotment gardening was partly understood as an element of doctrine. I was mostly interested in the planning system, which guarantees possible legal frameworks for allotment gardening and makes it possible to predict the future development of allotment gardens. Key words: allotment gardens, urban agriculture, spatial planning, Tallinn, Warsaw, Eastern Bloc countries

INTRODUCTION Allotment gardens, community gardens, city farms – today in many European countries these forms of urban agricul*e-mail: [email protected]

ture are again the subject of interest of many entrepreneurs, local stakeholders and scientists. In the structure of the city these places are fascinating examples of independent spaces which provide many ecosystem functions for the green infrastructure and make it possible to maintain sustainable development in the city in the context of ecology, economy and residents’ quality of life [Arosemena 2012, Giedych Poniży 2013, Matos and Batista 2013]. Also the food production function protects the self-sustainability of the city, when many European cities are developing intensively to occupy rural areas [Matos and Batista 2013]. At the same time for many people these places provide the possibility of active recreation without having to go outside the city [Pawlikowska-Piechotka 2011]. The history of allotment gardens in Europe began over two hundred years ago with the Industrial Revolution and the problem of the large number of new city inhabitants who came to work in the factories. Plots given to those people allowed them to cultivate plants and provide food for themselves and their families [Pole 2006]. From the start, allotment gardens were planned spaces incorporated into the structure of the city mainly with the protection of the factory owners [Pole

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2006]. Today we can observe that in many cities, especially those which have problems with large numbers of unemployed or immigrants, new allotment gardens are either planned by the local authority (Lisbon) or accepted as a bottom-up initiative (Berlin) [Rosol 2010, Matos and Batista 2013]. In general we can observe that the strategic planning of urban agriculture is of very great importance. There are many factors that should be considered in planning such spaces, ranging from social needs to the consideration of allotment gardens as a part of the green-blue structure of the city [Matos and Batista 2013]. Planners need to take care to choose the right location for them keeping in mind the needs of residents, food production, recreation, ecology, culture, aesthetics and changes in biodiversity, putting particular pressure on investors and local authorities to put good solutions into practice [Matos and Batista 2013]. Good planning also makes it possible to maintain an optimal number of allotment gardens in the city structure when the rapid development of urban areas requires new space for buildings [Irvine et al. 1997]. For this research I decided to examine policy documents relating to allotment garden development in two European cities: Tallinn and Warsaw. The choice of these cities was not an accident. Tallinn and Warsaw are the fast-developing capital cities of two Eastern European countries. They share a similar history, starting from the beginning of the 20th century, when after World War I both Estonia and Poland gained independence. After World War II Estonia and Poland became part of the

Eastern Bloc (Poland as a satellite state, and Estonia as the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic within the USSR). At the beginning of the 1990s, following the political and economic transformation, they became market economies, and in 2004 they became European Union members. The history of allotment gardens in both countries began in the early 20th century, but the rapid development and structuring of allotment gardens took place during the Soviet era, when urban gardening was part of the official doctrine [Bellows 2004]. Today we can see that in both capital cities the number of allotment gardens is decreasing. There can be many reasons for this; however, I decided to focus on the policy documents of Tallinn and Warsaw to find out how the current regulatory system relating to allotment garden development functions in those two cities. The research was carried out in two parts: the first in Warsaw, and the second in Tartu and Tallinn under a Short Time Scientific Mission at the Estonian University of Life Sciences. The main aims of the research were to: • collect information about the legal framework of allotment gardens; • examine the urban policies which relate to allotment gardens. The results of the two parts are presented and compared in this paper. It includes the main similarities and differences in the legal frameworks and current planning systems for allotment gardens in Tallinn and Warsaw. There are also analyses of past national and urban policies which formerly shaped urban agriculture (allotment gardens) in the two cities.

Allotment gardens in former Eastern Bloc countries...

MATERIAL AND METHODS The political situation and social structure shapes the landscape of every country [Cosgrove 1998 (1984), Tuvikene 2010]. In the context of the planning of allotment gardens in former Eastern Bloc countries this is particularly noticeable. During Soviet times allotment gardens were part of the landscape of many cities in the Soviet Union and its satellite states. There existed legal frameworks that established this form of urban agriculture based on a similar structure. Today, with the fast development taking place in the post-Soviet countries, allotment gardens are very often perceived as obstacles that occupy space which could be used for further building development. A good example of this situation is found in Warsaw [Giedych and Poniży 2013, Kosmala 2013]. It is possible that without the regulations relating to allotment gardens, they would have suffered increased destruction as has occurred in Tallinn. In this research I wished to compare policy documents of Poland and Warsaw which mention allotment gardening with similar documents of Tallinn and Estonia, to see how current regulations have influenced changes in the allotment garden network in two cities with a similar geopolitical background. This paper contains an analysis of past and current policy documents and maps which refer to allotment gardens in Warsaw and in Tallinn. Data were collected in cooperation with researchers from the Warsaw University of Life Sciences, the Estonian University of Life Sciences and Tallinn University, through consultations with city planners, and using the libraries and archives in Tallinn (Fig. 1).

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To analyse the problem I examined many documents within the scope of allotment garden planning. At national level in the case of Poland these were the Act on Family Allotment Gardens of 2005 (Ustawa z 8 lipca 2005 r. o rodzinnych ogrodach działkowych), the Act on Planning of 2003 (Ustawa z 27 marca 2003 r. o planowaniu i zagospodarowaniu przestrzennym), the Act on Environment Protection of 2001 (Ustawa z 27 kwietnia 2001 r. Prawo ochrony środowiska), the Act on Nature Protection of 2004 (Ustawa z 16 kwietnia 2004 r. Prawo ochrony przyrody) and the Act on Agricultural and Forest Land Protection of 1995 (Ustawa z 3 lutego 1995 r. o ochronie gruntów rolnych i leśnych). Estonian documents referring to allotment gardens on a national scale included the Act on Privatization of Gardening and Summerhouses Cooperatives adopted on 15 June 1992 (Aiandus-ja suvilakooperatiivide vara erastamise kohta), the Land Cadastre Act of 1994 (Maakatastriseadus), the Act on Sustainable Development of 1995 (Säästva arengu seadus), the Act on Land Reform of 1991 (Maareformi seadus) and the Categories of Land Use and Procedure for Determination of 2008 (Katastriüksuse sihtotstarvete liigid ja nende määramise kord). The city-level documents considered were, for Warsaw, the Study of Conditions and Directions of the Spatial Management of the City of Warsaw, 2010 (Studium uwarunkowań i kierunków zagospodarowania przestrzennego m.st. Warszawy. Uchwała LXXXII/2746/2006 Rady m.st. Warszawy z 10 października 2006 r. zmieniona uchwałą L/1521/2009 z 26 lutego 2009 r., uchwałą LIV/1631/2009 z 28 kwietnia 2009 r. i uchwałą XCII/26889/2010 z

Phase 1: Data collection.

Part 1. Warsaw

Part 2. Tallinn

Collecting publications and acts of law and regulations of the planning system in Poland

Collecting publications and acts of law and regulations of the planning system in Estonia

Collecting publications and acts of law relating to allotment gardens and green spaces in Poland

Collecting publications and acts of law relating to allotment gardens and green spaces in Estonia

Collecting publications and acts of law relating to allotment gardens and green spaces in Warsaw

Collecting publications and acts of law relating to allotment gardens and green spaces in Tallinn

Collecting historical acts of law relating to the planning of allotment gardens

Collecting historical acts of law relating to the planning of allotment gardens

Analyses and discussion concerning Part 1

Analyses and discussion concerning Part 2

Phase 2: Comparison of the outcomes from Phase 1

Comparison of Part 1 and Part 2. FIGURE 1. Methodology of the research

Summarizing the results and discussion.

Allotment gardens in former Eastern Bloc countries...

7 października 2010 r.) and the Programme of Environment Protection for the Years 2009–2012 (Uchwała XCIII/2732/2010 Rady Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy z 21 października 2010 r. w sprawie przyjęcia Programu Ochrony Środowiska dla m.st. Warszawy na lata 2009– –2012 z uwzględnieniem perspektywy do 2016 r.); and for Tallinn, the Master Plan of Tallinn (Tallinna linna üldplaneering) and the Plan for Environment Protection (Tallina Rochealade Teemaplanering). To understand better the current differences in planning policy relating to allotment gardens I also looked at historical acts, decrees, and publications about historical acts both in Poland and in Estonia. The acts and decrees considered were, in Poland, the Decree on Allotment Gardens of 1946 (Dekret z dnia 25 czerwca 1946 r o ogrodach działkowych), the Act on Workers’ Allotment Gardens of 1949 (Ustawa z 9 marca 1949 r. o pracowniczych ogrodach działkowych) and the Act on Workers’ Allotment Gardens of 1981 (Ustawa z 6 maja 1981 r. o pracowniczych ogrodach działkowych); and for Estonia, the Resolution on Collective and Individual Horticular Production of 1949 (O коллективном и индивидуальном огородничестве и садоводстве рабочих служащих), the Standard Statute of Garden Cooperatives of 1956, the Land Use Act of the Estonian Soviet Republic (official text with changes and annotations) of 1970 (Министерство Юстиции Зстонской СССР Земельный Кодек Естонской СССР Официальный текст с изменениями и дополнениями на 1 мая 1970 года, Таллин издательство “ЗЗСТИ РАМАТ” 1970), the Land Use Act of the Estonian Soviet Republic (official text with changes and annotations)

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of 1983 (Министерство Юстиции Зстонской СССР Земельный Кодекс Естонской СССР Официальный текст с изменениями и дополнениями на 1 мая 1983 года, Таллин издательство “ЗЗСТИ РАМАТ” 1983), the Protection of Agriculture Directive of 1960 (Põlumajandus alaseid direktiiv, seadusandlikke akte, EEsti Riklik Kirjastus Tallin 1960), the agro-industrial complex directives of 1986 (Agrotoostus Kompleksi Alaseid direktiive, Seadusandlikke ja Ametkondlikke Akte, 1986) and Estonian SSR State Committee on Agribusiness Information and Implementation in Government, of 1989 (EEst NSV Riikliku Agrotööstuskomitee Info-ja Juurutusvalitsus, Tallin, 1989). Other information about allotment garden planning was obtained from publications which deal with that topic in Estonia and Poland; however, there are not many publications dealing with the legal frameworks for allotment gardens in the two countries. In Estonia, helpful explanations were obtained from the municipality of Tallinn in the course of telephone conversations conducted by researchers from the Estonian University of Life Sciences.

RESULTS Allotment gardens in Poland In the STSM report I presented the results of research conducted in 2013. In December 2013, parliament passed a new Act on Family Allotment Gardens. Based on these changes, in this paper I wish to describe the current legal framework for allotment gardens in Poland and to com-

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pare it with that provided by the previous Act. Figure 2 presents the main differences between these two Acts which to a large extent determine the structure of allotment gardens. The differences noted are relevant to planning policy. The new Act on Family Allotment Gardens of 2013 gives a general overview of the structure, function and importance of allotment gardens in Poland. This document lays down that responsibility for the planning of allotment gardens remains at the level of the municipal authority (gmina). The municipality has the right to establish and liquidate allotment gardens by issuing legal conditions for such land use. It also gives permission to a selected association to take responsibility for the management of allotment gardens. Other acts that support the existence of allotment gardens and protect them

Definition

are the Act on Environment Protection of 2001, the Act on Nature Protection of 2004, and the Act on Agricultural and Forest Land Protection of 1995. Another document that indirectly provides a legal basis for allotment gardens is the Act on Planning of 2003. The aforementioned acts affect the position of allotment gardens, but not in a direct way. They regulate the protection of agricultural and green areas in general, and so many of their provisions are applicable also to allotment gardens. The first allotment gardens in Poland appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, but the current strong position of allotment gardens within the Polish legal system is a legacy of the period of the Polish People’s Republic. From 1946, when the first decree was published (Decree on Allotment Gardens of 1946), allotment gardens became an

Act on Family Allotment Gardens of 2005

Act on Family Allotment Gardens of 2013

“A family allotment garden is a separated part of land which is held by PZD (Polish Allotment Gardeners’ Association) divided into communal lands and allotments equipped with infrastructure that is necessary for its proper functioning.”

“A family allotment garden is a separated part of land or land which is reserved for family allotment gardens divided into communal lands and allotments equipped with infrastructure that is necessary for its proper functioning.”

Function

Leisure, recreation, healthcare, improving social and living conditions of users, ecological

Leisure, recreation, healthcare, improving social and living conditions of users, social integration, ecological

Importance in spatial planning and ownership

Must be included in the process of spatial planning at municipality level as an important element of the infrastructure of the municipality in its Study of Conditions and Directions of Spatial Management. PZD is the only organization having permission to establish allotment gardens on land (state owned).

Must be included in the process of spatial planning at municipality level as an important element of the infrastructure of the municipality in its Study of Conditions and Directions of Spatial Management. Selected Gardeners’ Associations have permission to establish allotment gardens.

FIGURE 2. Main differences between the old and new Act on Allotment Gardens in Poland

Allotment gardens in former Eastern Bloc countries...

important part of the landscape in many Polish cities. The decree established both permanent and temporary allotment gardens, and gave the rights to the land containing allotment gardens to communities and workplaces to distribute plots among manual and white-collar workers (and their families). Each permanent allotment garden was required to have at least 40 plots each measuring 100– –500 m2. The decree described the functions of allotment gardens as recreation, improvement of health and food production. Three years later, in the 1949 Act on Workers’ Allotment Gardens, the provisions of the decree were expanded. This Act required allotment gardens to be established in all neighbourhoods where at least 20% of the inhabitants lived in multifamily housing with no access to a garden. The Act gave the right to administer all allotment gardens to one organization, the Association of Trade Unions, and liquidated all small associations. In 1981 a new Act on Workers’ Allotment Gardens was published. This Act gave the exclusive right to control all allotment gardens in Poland to the Polish Gardeners’ Association. With this Act all workers’ allotment gardens became “permanent objects” for an indefinite period. According to this document, allotment gardens were also allowed (temporarily) for at least five years in places assigned a different function in the Spatial Management Plan. Also the required area of plots was increased to 300–500 m2, or up to 1500 m2 in temporary allotment gardens. This Act substantially shaped the structure of allotment gardens as it can mostly be observed today.

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Allotment gardens in Warsaw Today in Warsaw there are 166 allotment gardens with 29,588 plots, occupying a total area of 1181.66 ha1. Allotment gardens account for over 58% of all green space within the city. This shows how great a role they play in the ecological system of Warsaw [Giedych and Poniży 2013]. According to Polish law there are two documents that provide a legal basis for allotment gardens at city level. These are the Study of the Conditions and Directions of the Spatial Management of the City of Warsaw of 2010, and the Programme of Environment Protection for 2009–2012. In Warsaw these two documents classify allotment gardens within the structure of green areas, specify their function and provide information about the future development of these areas. In the Study of the Conditions and Directions of Spatial Management, allotment gardens are classified as green spaces with leisure, recreational and nature protection functions. The Programme of Environment Protection categorizes them as agriculture land with leisure, nature protection and food production functions. There are also differences as regards the specified directions of future development. The Study of the Conditions and Directions of Spatial Management gives permission for the transformation of this land into public green spaces. The land can also be used for other purposes connected with urban development. The Programme of Environment Protection suggests that allotment gardens that 1

According to data from the Mazovian PZD official website: http://mazowiecki.pzd.pl/ogrodywarszawskie/ [accessed 30 September 2014].

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H. Szumilas

occupy land belonging to the Ecological System of Warsaw should be redesigned as public green spaces. Allotment gardens in Estonia Allotment gardens are not in fact protected in Estonia. There are few documents that directly or indirectly refer to allotment gardens. One that deals with allotment gardens is the Act on Privatization of Gardening and Summerhouses Cooperatives of 1992 (Aiandus-ja suvilakooperatiivide vara erastamise kohta). This document provided a legal basis for the privatization of cooperatives (the Estonian name for the Soviet allotment gardens). According to this document, assets of cooperatives are transformed and terminated by a “general meeting of cooperative members” and this can be performed by “members of cooperatives, wives, husbands, descendants who are living in Estonia, siblings and their descendants”, and “the whole property can be privatized”. Other documents that can apply to land occupied by allotment gardens include the Land Cadastre Act of 1994, the Act on Sustainable Development of 1995, and the Act on Land Reform of 1991. These acts, like their equivalents in Poland, in general refer to allotment gardens indirectly. The regulations are mainly applicable to various types of land, including agricultural and green areas, which means that they also deal with allotment gardens. The Act on Land Reform contains more specific information concerning summerhouses with gardens outside cities, but these are not true allotment gardens. There is also a document that indirectly provides the possibility of creating new allotment gardens. This is the

Categories of Land Use and Procedure for Determination document of 2008, a government ordinance based on the Land Cadastre Act. It allows an allotment garden to be created on land with unregulated purpose, agricultural land or public land used as a green area. In Estonia allotment gardens can be recognized under entities with different names: garden cooperatives, cooperatives, dachas (summerhouses), community gardens and garden associations. The first three of these date from Soviet times. Cooperatives and garden cooperatives were intended for “creation of climate, horticulture, beekeeping and for the recreation of workers”2. Summerhouses were houses with gardens in the suburbs of cities, very popular in the Soviet era. The last two names refer to allotment gardens in post-Soviet Estonia; there is no official definition for them, but the name Garden Association is a new name for garden cooperatives, and community gardens are mostly those organized by activists. Laws in force in Estonia today have led to the liquidation of many allotment gardens (garden cooperatives) in that country. However in the past, similarly as in Poland, they held a more privileged position, this being related to the doctrine and policies espoused in the whole of the Soviet Union [Rudomina 2011]. In 1949 the government issued the Resolution on Collective and Individual Horticular Production of 1949, whose provisions also related to allotment gardens. According to this document, workers could obtain a plot for their own use (land was 2

Ministry of Justice, Estonian Soviet Republic, Land Use Act of the Estonian Soviet Republic, official text with changes and annotations, of 1983.

Allotment gardens in former Eastern Bloc countries...

the property of the state, but plots were allocated by workers’ organizations) [Rudomina 2011]. The sizes of the plots were between 600 and 1200 m2 [Rudomina 2011]. Seven years later, in 1956, the Standard Statute of Garden Cooperatives was published. This document provided a legal basis for the establishment, running and closure of garden cooperatives [Rudomina 2011]. After this, in 1965 the first garden cooperative was established. During the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic issued several documents dealing with issues relating to garden cooperatives. These included the Land Use Act of the Estonian Soviet Republic (official text with changes and annotations) of 1970, the Land Use Act of the Estonian Soviet Republic (official text with changes and annotations) of 1983, the Protection of Agriculture Directive of 1960, the agro-industrial complex directives of 1986, and the Estonian SSR State Committee on Agribusiness Information and Implementation in Government of 1989. These documents contained more specific provisions concerning the organization of garden cooperatives in Soviet Estonia. Allotment gardens in Tallinn There is no legal framework for allotment gardens in Tallinn. The two main documents, the Master Plan of Tallinn (Tallina Uldplaneering) and the Plan of Environment Protection (Tallina Rochealade Teemaplanerin) contain no information about allotment gardens. Today there are not many allotment gardens in Tallinn. The city authorities have no current statistics about the number of allotment gardens in the city. Some of them have existed since Soviet times, while

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others have been set up by social activists during recent years. The only official information today concerns users of summerhouses in the suburbs of Tallinn [Leetmaa et al. 2011]. That publication reports that exactly equal proportions of women and men (50% of each) use such gardens, and that 4% of users are aged 0–14 years, 19% are aged 15–29 years, 29% are aged 30–49 years, 29% are aged 50–64 years, and 22% are older than 65. Summerhouses are mostly popular among people with secondary education, who make up 53% of the study group. The second largest group (34% of the total) consists of people with only primary education, while university graduates are in the minority, accounting for only 14% of the study group.

DISCUSSION The process of political and economic transformation has led to completely different reactions with respect to allotment gardens in these two former Eastern Bloc countries. While in Poland the law has protected allotment gardens for many years and continues to do so, Estonia has in fact mostly terminated their existence through the process of privatization. This was in fact a result of the radical change of course towards liberal laws taken at the beginning of the 1990s, and of the land reform [Roose et al. 2012]. Although allotment gardens originated in Western European countries, in countries like Poland and Estonia, they are perceived as a holdover of Soviet times [Kosmala 2013]. Also in Poland (as in any other country) they are seen as a barrier to urban development [Bellows 2004].

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However, current research shows that it is very important to recognize allotment gardens as a part of the green structure of the city and a means of supporting biodiversity in the city; thus they are of great importance for sustainable development within the city [Irvine et al. 1999, Ahrne et al. 2009, Holland 2004]. Accordingly, the strong position provided to allotment gardens by Polish law should be viewed in a positive light. At the same time, the situation in Tallinn should be hoped to be the subject of improvement. The absence of any official data on the number and area of allotment gardens shows that both Estonia as a country and the city of Tallinn are failing to perceive that allotment gardens actually bring many benefits for society, ecology and the economy. At the same time, however, citizens of Tallinn have developed several community gardens on their own. Bottom-up initiatives have established new allotment gardens in places where there was a real need for them. The example of Tallinn may be useful today in Warsaw, where under changes in the law residents will be able to establish allotment gardens outside the control of the Polish Gardeners’ Association (PZD).

CONCLUSIONS The history of allotment gardens in Poland and Estonia is similar to a large extent. In the past many things were managed in line with the ordinances of the Soviet system, which were similar in both countries. During the political transformation in the 1990s the process of reprivatization brought about changes in land use policy, including in the context

of allotment gardens. Nevertheless we can observe that today, under the market economy, the two countries have developed different models for the planning of allotment gardens. The first difference relates to the fact that allotment gardens in Poland are protected by the law to a greater degree than in Estonia. There is a special Act on Allotment Gardens, which was updated in 2013. Under the new ordinance, municipalities are obliged to provide new land for allotment gardens on each occasion when previous such land has had to undergo a change of use. It also allows the creation of new allotment gardens outside the control of what was previously the one single authorized association. This provides a chance to modify the structure and function of allotment gardens according to the needs of the municipality and potential users. In Estonia, since 1992, due to the Act on Privatization of Gardening and Summerhouses Cooperatives, allotment gardens can exist only in places where the owner of the land gives permission for such use. As a result of this policy, today allotment gardens can only occupy private land or land without a designated use. It is also easy to notice differences in policies at city level. In Warsaw, allotment gardens are still perceived as an important element of open green spaces [Giedych and Poniży 2013]. There are documents which support the existence of allotment gardens in the public space. In Tallinn the city authority appears not to be interested in the issue of allotment gardens. Under the Master Plan of Tallinn, land containing allotment gardens has been designated for other purposes.

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Although allotment gardens policy is today more developed in Poland, the case of Estonia shows that allotment gardens can develop without regulatory protection. Old-type urban allotment gardens are slowly being replaced by modern collectives of people who want to cultivate land in the city. If the position of these groups becomes stronger, we can expect that in the future these new gardens may bring about changes in the policies of both Tallinn and Estonia as a whole. It should also be remembered that the research was completed in November 2013. In December 2013 Poland passed a new Act on Family Allotment Gardens. Due to this Act some general parts of the law have changed, and it is not known how the situation of allotment gardens will change in the future. Acknowledgments I would like to thank Renata Giedych PhD, Professor Simon Bell, Thomas Mooru, Merle Karro-Karlberg and the student Ilona Feklistova for their special help in Poland and Estonia with collecting and understanding policy documents and rules relating to the planning of allotment gardens in those two countries.

REFERENCES Act on Workers’ Allotment Gardens of 1949 (Ustawa z dnia 9 marca 1949 r. o pracowniczych ogrodach działkowych). Act on Workers’ Allotment Gardens of 1981 (Ustawa z dnia 6 maja 1981 r. o pracowniczych ogrodach działkowych). Agro-industrial complex directives of 1986 (Agrotoostus Kompleksi Alaseid direktiive, Seadusandlikke ja Ametkondlikke Akte 1986).

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AHRNE K., BENGTSSON J., ELMQVIST T. (2009). Bumble bees (Bombus spp) along a gradient of increasing urbanization. Plos One 4(5), e5574. AROSEMENA G. (2012). Urban agriculture. Spaces of cultivation for a sustainable city. Gustavo Gili, Barcelona. Bellows, A. C. (2004). One hundred years of allotment gardens in Poland. 1. Food & Foodways 12(4): 247–276. BELL S., KULVIK M., KARRO-KALBERG M., PIKNER T., SEMM K. (2013). The Allotment Gardens in Estonia, Poster presentation at Dortmund Joint MC and WG Meeting, March 7-9, 2013, Dortmund, Germany. COSGROVE D. (1998 [1984]). Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. Decree on Allotment Gardens of 1946 (Dekret z dnia 25 czerwca 1946 r. o ogrodach działkowych). Estonia. Parliament of Estonia (1992). Privatization of gardening and summerhouses cooperatives (Aiandus-ja suvilakooperatiivide vara erastamise kohta Vastu võetud 15.06.1992 RT 1992, 28, 371 jõustumine 01.07.1992). Estonia. Parliament of Estonia (1994). Land Cadastre Act (Maakatastriseadus Vastu võetud 12.10.1994 RT I 1994, 74, 1324 (v.a § 3, mis jõustus 1. 01. 1995). Estonia. Parliament of Estonia (1995). Act on Sustainable Development (Säästva arengu seadus Vastu võetud 22.02.1995 RT I 1995, 31, 384 jõustumine 01.04.1995). Estonia. Parliament of Estonia (1991). Act on Land Reform (Maareformi seadus Vastu võetud 17.10.1991 RT 1991, 34, 426 jõustumine 01.11.1991). Estonia. Parliament of Estonia (2008). Categories of Land Use and Procedure for Determination (Katastriüksuse sihtotstarvete liigid ja nende määramise kord Vastu võetud 23.10.2008 nr 155). Estonian SSR State Committee on Agribusiness Information and Implementation in Government, 1989 (EEst NSV Riikliku

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Agrotööstuskomitee Info-ja Juurutusvalitsus, Tallin 1989) GIEDYCH R., PONIŻY L. (2013). Allotment gardens as an element of land use and ecology policy of the city on the example of Warsaw and Poznań. (Ogrody działkowe jako przedmiot polityki przestrzennej i ekologicznej miast na przykładzie Warszawy i Poznania). Przegląd Komunalny. HOLLAND L. (2004). Diversity and connections in community gardens: a contribution to local sustainability. Journal: Local Environment 9(3): 285–305. http:// doi.org/10.1080/1354983042000219388. Accessed 2004. IRVINE S., JOHNSON L., PETERS K. (1999). Community gardens and sustainable land use planning: A case-study of the Alex Wilson community garden. Local Environment 4(1): 33–46. KOSMALA M. (2013). Parks an alternative for allotment gardens? (Parki alternatywą dla działek?). Przegląd Komunalny. LEETMAA K., BRADE I., ANNISTE K., NUGA M. (2012). Socialist summerhome settlements in post-socialist suburbanisation. Urban Studies 49(1): 3–21. MATOS R.S., BATISTA D.S. (2013). Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability. OZM PZD – Warsaw (n.d.) ROD. [ONLINE] Available at: http://mazowiecki. pzd.pl/ogrody-warszawskie/ [accessed 30 September 2014]. Ministry of Justice, Estonian Soviet Republic. Land Use Act of the Estonian Soviet Republic, official text with changes and annotations, of 1970 (Министерство Юстиции Зстонской СССР Земельный Кодек Естонской СССР Официальный текст с изменениями и дополнениями на 1 мая 1970 года, Таллин издательство “ЗЗСТИ РАМАТ” 1970). Ministry of Justice, Estonian Soviet Republic. Land Use Act of the Estonian Soviet Republic, official text with changes and annotations, of 1983 (Министерство Юстиции Зстонской СССР Земельный

Кодекс Естонской СССР Официальный текст с изменениями и дополнениями на 1 мая 1983 года, Таллин издательство “ЗЗСТИ РАМАТ “ 1983). PAWLIKOWSKA-PIECHOTKA A. (2011). Active recreation space ‘for all’: family gardens in Poland. Studies in Physical Culture and Tourism 18(4): 351–360. Poland. Parliament of Poland (2005). Act on Family Allotment Gardens (Ustawa z 8 lipca 2005 r. o rodzinnych ogrodach działkowych). Poland. Parliament of Poland (2013). Act on Family Allotment Gardens (Ustawa z 13 grudnia 2013 r. o rodzinnych ogrodach działkowych). Poland. Parliament of Poland (2003). Act on Planning (Ustawa z dnia 27 marca 2003 r. o planowaniu i zagospodarowaniu przestrzennym). Poland. Parliament of Poland (2001). Act on Environment Protection (Ustawa z dnia 27 kwietnia 2001 r. Prawo ochrony środowiska). Poland. Parliament of Poland (2004). Act on Nature Protection (Ustawa z dnia 16 kwietnia 2004 r. Prawo ochrony przyrody). Poland. Parliament of Poland (1995). Act on Agricultural and Forest Land Protection (Ustawa z 3 lutego 1995 r. o ochronie gruntów rolnych i leśnych). Poland. City Council of Warsaw (2010). Study of the Conditions and Directions of the Spatial Management of the City of Warsaw (Studium uwarunkowań i kierunków zagospodarowania przestrzennego miasta st. Warszawy. Uchwała LXXXII/2746/2006 Rady m.st. Warszawy z 10 października 2006 r. zmieniona Uchwałą L/1521/2009 r. z 26 lutego 2009 r, uchwałą LIV/1631/2009 z 28 kwietnia 2009 r. i uchwałą XCII/26889/ /2010 z 7 października 2010 r.). Poland. City Council of Warsaw (2010). Programme of Environment Protection for the Years 2009–2012 with Prospects to 2016 (Uchwała XCIII/2732/2010 rady Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy z 21 października 2010 r. w sprawie przyjęcia

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Programu Ochrony Środowiska dla m.st. Warszawy na lata 2009–2012 z uwzględnieniem perspektywy do 2016 r.). POLE S. (2006). The Allotment Chronicles: A Social History of Allotment Gardening. History & Heritage of Britain, Silver Link Publishing. Protection of Agriculture Directive of 1960 (Põlumajandus alaseid direktiiv, seadusandlikke akte, EEsti Riklik Kirjastus Tallin 1960). Resolution on Collective and Individual Horticular Production of 1949 (O коллективном и индивидуаль²ном огородничестве и садоводстве рабочих служащих). ROOSE A., KULL A., GAUK M., TALI T. (2013). Land use policy shocks in the postcommunist urban fringe: A case study of Estonia. Land Use Policy 30(1): 76–83. ROSOL M. (2010). Public Participation in Post-Fordist Urban Green Space Governance: The Case of Community Gardens in Berlin. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 34(3): 548–563. RUDOMINA O. (2011). Aianduskooperatiivid suhtlusruumina: magistritöö maastikuarhitektuuri erialal. Eesti Maaülikool, Tartu. Standard Statute of Garden Cooperatives of 1956. SZUMILAS H. (2013). Problems of allotment gardens development – Warsaw and Tallinn comparative studies. COST Action TU1201Urban Allotment Gardens in European Cities – Future, Challenges and Lessons Learned. Short Term Scientific Mission Report 30/09-13/10/2013 Tartu, Estonia [ONLINE] Available at: http:// www.urbanallotments.eu/fileadmin/uag/ media/STSM/STSM_Report_Szumilas_ final.pdf [accessed 30 September 2014]. Tallinn (n.d). Master Plan of Tallinn (Tallinna linna üldplaneering) [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.tallinn.ee/est/ ehitus/Tallinna-linna-uldplaneering [accessed 30 September 2014].

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Tallinn (2008). Environment Protection Plan (Tallina Rochealade Teemaplanering) [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.tallinn.ee/est/ehitus/g6479s42710 [accessed 30 September 2014]. TUVIKENE T. (2010). From Soviet to post-Soviet with transformation of the fragmented urban landscape: The case of garage areas in Estonia. Landscape Research 35(5): 509–528. Streszczenie: Ogrody działkowe w krajach byłego bloku wschodniego – studia porównawcze systemu planowania przestrzennego w stolicach Estonii i Polski, Tallina i Warszawy. Artykuł ten powstał na podstawie wyników Short Term Scientfic Mission w ramach programu COST Action TU 1201 Miejskie Ogrody Działkowe w Miastach Europejskich – Przyszłość, Wyzwania i Wnioski, która miała miejsce w październiku 2013 roku na Estońskim Uniwersytecie Przyrodniczym. W trakcie dwóch tygodni pobytu w Tartu i Tallinie próbowałam zebrać dane dotyczące sytemu planowania ogrodów działkowych w skalach kraju i miasta (Tallinna). Zebrane dane pozwoliły mi na porównanie rezultatów STSM z wynikami badań przeprowadzonych w Warszawie, w Polsce. Obecne trendy w wielu krajach europejskich pokazują, że ogrody działkowe stały się ponownie bardzo popularne. Głównym celem tego artykułu jest pokazanie różnic i podobieństw w rozwoju ogrodów działkowych w stolicach Estonii i Polski. Byłam zainteresowana jak sytuacja tych obiektów wygląda w dwóch krajach byłego bloku wschodniego, gdzie przydziały na ogrody działkowe dla klasy robotniczej było po części rozumiane jako element doktryny. W moich badaniach byłam głównie zainteresowana systemem planowania przestrzennego, który gwarantuje możliwe ramy prawne dla obecności ogrodów działkowych i pozwala częściowo przewidzieć dalszy rozwój ogrodów działkowych.

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 35, 2014: 53–66 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 35, 2014)

Sacred architecture in the residential landscape – the case of Wilanów DOROTA SIKORA*, MAŁGORZATA KACZYŃSKA

Department of Landscape Art, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Abstract: Sacred architecture in the residential landscape – the case of Wilanów. This paper concerns spatial relations between a historical residence and sacral buildings, using the example of the Wilanów district in Warsaw. Historical churches and other sacral elements have been visible dominants within Polish residential areas and have been included in their composition. In Wilanów, this can be seen both in the geometrical, Baroque composition established in the 17th and 18th centuries, in which the local church was included, and in the subsequent Romantic composition established in the 19th century, where the church and other sacral buildings performed the role of dominants. At present, historical sacral buildings are becoming less visible within the Wilanów residential area and newly designed churches are not compositionally related to the residence. Key words: sacred architecture in landscape, cultural landscape, Wilanów

INTRODUCTION Polish residential complexes were often spatially related to the adjoining sacral buildings. These relations resulted from the foundation of sacral buildings by the affluent social class. It was a symptom of the revival of religious life in the late 16th and in the 17th century, after the Council of Trent in the Catholic part of Europe, and of the great role played by religion in everyday life in the 18th and 19th centu*e-mail: [email protected]

ries. Analysis of examples of Polish residences having sacral buildings within their surroundings shows that the relation between a residence and a church existed not only on a spiritual level, but also on a compositional level. The church became one of the dominants within the residential area, and the vistas from the palace or surrounding gardens were intentionally directed towards it. This phenomenon can be seen both in the Baroque, when a church or other sacral element closed the important compositional axis of the residence, as in the case of Choroszcz and Podhorce (church on the axis of the residence), Białystok (view from the most important palace apartments onto the so-called Old Church) and Rydzyna (votive column of the Divine Trinity on the palace axis), and also in later-established residences shaped in an informal way: Gucin (view of the church as the key element of the Romantic park composition), Puławy (church inspired by the architecture of the Roman Pantheon as one of the important elements of the Romantic landscape composition). The landscape of the Wilanów residence and the Wilanów Estates combines the characteristics of both the Baroque and the informal residential landscape shaped in the 19th and 20th centuries. It

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is also an area where over the centuries many sacral elements have been established on different scales. Contemporary transformations related to the process of urbanization, begun at the start of the 21st century, allow one to evaluate the present significance of sacred architecture within the landscape (Fig. 1).

Gucin, where sacral landscape elements had special significance. The research also included selected sacral buildings founded by the Wilanów Estates owners within their other estates. The research included analysis of archival sources and publications. The most important archival materials used in the

FIGURE 1. The formal relations between sacral elements and the Wilanów residence within the studied area (own elaboration)

MATERIAL AND METHODS The subject of this research is the Wilanów residential landscape within its historical boundaries resulting from the development of the Wilanów Estates between 1677 and 1945. Within this area, an analysis has been made of the relation of the sacral buildings, founded by the Wilanów Estates owners, to the Wilanów residence and some of its filial residences. One of these is the filial residence in

analysis are: the collection of the Archives of Old Files in Warsaw, the Archives of the National Heritage Board of Poland, reports by 18th-century travelers (Friedrich Schultz and Johann Erich Biester) on their stay in Wilanów, and the 19th-century vistas of Wilanów from the album of Wojciech Gerson and Henryk Skimborowicz “Willanów – Album of Vistas and Souvenirs” from 1877. Among the contemporary publications used, the most important are the books of Wojciech Fijałkowski, one of the most renowned researchers into the

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Wilanów residence, a set of publications about Gucin (one of the filial residences) by Piotr Sypczuk and Maciej Świątkowski, and an article by Tadeusz Bernatowicz about the Church of the Holy Lady Mary and Saint Catherine in Służew. Another important group of analyzed publications consists of the books of Longin Majdecki [1965, 1996], which provide information about the phases of the Wilanów residence’s spatial development and the spatial, compositional and visual connections between the residence and the important sacral buildings and filial residences in its surroundings. That author also analyzes in detail the composition of the Gucin residence and its spatial and visual relations to the dominant elements of the surrounding landscape. Other analyzed publications include Marta Piber’s dissertation concerning the circumstances of the establishment of the church and parish in Służew [Piber 2001], and books describing historical transformations of the former Wilanów Estates landscape and its spatial, functional and compositional connections [Lisowska et al. 1993, Kicińska 1993, Szpanowski 2006, 2009]. Useful information concerning transformations of the ownership structure within the Wilanów Estates is contained in the publications of Barbara Smoleńska [1979, 1984]. The information obtained from archival sources and publications was verified during field studies, which included the making of additional photographic documentation of the sacral buildings, recording of their relations to the Wilanów residence, and evaluation of the present condition both of the buildings and those relations.

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An analysis was also made of the visual connections between the Wilanów residence and both historical and contemporary sacral buildings. It was investigated whether they are still perceived as the dominants in the former Wilanów Estates landscape. Wayside crosses and shrines were also documented, and the circumstances and dates of their establishment were identified.

RESULTS The Wilanów Estates in the times of John Sobieski III The beginnings of the Wilanów residence are connected with King John Sobieski III, who bought the estates (previously called Milanów) in 1677. According to an “assurance” signed on September 21, 1678, on the land purchased in Wilanów, Sobieski “found walls of the palace of which construction was just started” and which he decided to complete for his own comfort. He also decided to establish “a garden and raise other buildings and to bring in and settle there his subjects” [Fijałkowski 1973]. Apart from the palace walls, Sobieski also found in Milanów a wooden church, dating from the beginning of the 17th century [Fijałkowski 1973]. Sobieski’s residence represented the Polish interpretation of the idea of the suburban Italian Villa, but was also strongly influenced by the French style. In the 17th century it included the palace, the avant-cour and cour d’honneur, the terrace garden, the two stretches of usable gardens – the so-called fruit gardens and the garden surrounding the “Bacchus Mountain” – the royal farm situated

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to the south of the palace, and the royal deer-park on the eastern side of Wilanów Lake. The extension of the composition consisted of a canal, several hundred meters long, situated on the western side along a common axis with the royal seat, and the straight road leading to the Zawady farm and village located along the same axis on the eastern side of the palace [Cydzik and Fijałkowski 1975]. The royal farm was situated next to the Wilanów gardens1. The residence was surrounded by villages. The village of Wilanów stretched along the western bank of Wilanów Lake, within the area of the present-day Biedronki street. There, Sobieski settled craftsmen connected with his court. The former Wilanów village road system forms the basis for the present-day streets called Biedronki, Obornicka and Wiertnicza (formerly Czerniakowska Road). Next to the royal residence, to the north, a small wooden parish church surrounded by a cemetery was established. The scheme of the church visible on Adolf Boy’s plan from 16822 shows that it was probably a late Gothic building3 with a bipartite nave and elongated presbytery closed from three sides. Within the building there could also be distinguished a sacristy, a vestibule and a small side chapel. John Sobieski III was the church’s benefactor [Fijałkowski and 1

Plan of Wilanów (1682) made by Adolf Boy, copied by Gerard Ciołek (1947). 2 Plan of Wilanów made by the military engineer Adolf Boy (1682), known from Gerard Ciołek’s and Juliusz Starzyński’s copies. The original plan was burned during World War II. 3 Wojciech Fijałkowski indicates a close analogy with the surviving 16th-century wooden church in Boguszyce [Fijałkowski, year of publication unknown].

Krawczyk 2002]. Due to the development of the royal garden in the 1680s, the church was displaced to the palace foreground. Around the new church building a new cemetery was established, and the Chapel of Saint Leonard, previously located there, was replaced with a wooden campanile covered by a pyramid hip roof [Fijałkowski, year of publication unknown]. The Wilanów church, although it was not located along a common axis with the royal seat, was undoubtedly visibly dominant within its foreground and the surrounding village. The open spaces of meadows and fields surrounding the Wilanów residence provided easily perceived visual connections between the Wilanów royal seat and the new Saint Leonard’s Church and the Church of the Holy Lady Mary and Saint Catherine in Służew, established much earlier. The concern of Sobieski and his wife Maria Kazimiera for the spiritual dimension of their subjects’ lives was typical of 17th-century European Catholic sovereigns and aristocrats. As Adam Miłobędzki wrote, describing the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries in architecture, “the common revival of the religious life especially manifested itself in a large increase in new sacral foundations. The religious devoutness of the more affluent social classes was expressed in building activity” [Miłobędzki 1988]. Sobieski and his wife, apart from supporting the modest church in Wilanów, were the founders of many splendid churches and cloisters of the First Polish Republic, like the Order of the Blessed Sacrament cloister in Warsaw (a foundation of Maria Kazimiera), the Warsaw cloister

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of Capuchins (a foundation of John Sobieski III in gratitude for the victories of Vienna and Chocim), a small church in the former Marywil in Warsaw (a foundation of Maria Kazimiera), the church and cloister of Dominicans in Żółkiew (foundation of furnishings and re-development). These churches were skillfully incorporated into the existing urban tissue and constituted local dominants. Especially interesting is the small church in Marywil, located within a representative building complex which had a palatial character and served both residential and commercial functions, alluding to the Paris royal squares tradition. This church performed an important spatial role. It was located in the middle of an arcade gallery which closed the square, at the end of a compositional axis determined by a monumental gate and the church. Within the Wilanów residence there was another important sacral feature – a stone column with the Maltese cross, raised in the 1680s at the edge of the royal gardens, next to the former road to Powsin village. It commemorated the king’s military activities in the so-called Holy League against the Turkish army, and his most important victory, that of Vienna, which was perceived as liberating Christian Europe from the threat of the Ottoman Empire. The Wilanów residence and its sacral elements in the second half of the 18th century In 1720 the Wilanów Estates were bought by Elżbieta Sieniawska née Lubomirska. Between 1722 and 1725 Sieniawska also bought the villages of Kabaty, Lisy, Narty and Moczydło, and lands in Powsin, Wolica and Służew. In 1725 in Powsin she founded the new brick par-

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ish church of Saint Elizabeth, designed by the well-known architect Józef Fontana. There is no indication that Sieniawska made any important changes to the Wilanów church. The wooden Wilanów church from Sobieski’s times existed until the second half of the 18th century. In 1772 the then owner of the Wilanów residence, August Czartoryski, commissioned the architect Jan Kotelnicki to design a new brick church in the same location. It was erected within an orthogonal square surrounded by trees4. The new temple received a Latin cross layout and modest late-Baroque architectural decoration. The church façade was made to resemble Saint Antoni’s Church on Senatorska street in Warsaw5. Near the Wilanów church a brick priest’s house and complex of administrative buildings were erected. Within the church surroundings a large quarter-garden was established. In the conservator’s documentation, the so-called Green Card, the name of Józef Fontana, an 18th-century architect who worked in Poland during that period, appears as the builder of the priest’s house6. During this period, the Wilanów church was completely and intentionally 4

The location of the new church is shown on a plan of Wilanów from the end of the 18th century: Planta Jeneralna Pałacu Wilanowskiego z ogrodem (19th-century copy of a plan from the late 18th century). AGAD Zb. Kart. 475-1. 5 The Baroque architectural decoration of Saint Anne’s Church in Wilanów can be seen in the 19th-century album of H. Skimborowicz and W. Gerson “Willanów – Album of Vistas and Souvenirs”, Warsaw, 1877. 6 Conservator’s documentation, the so-called Green Card of the Wilanów priest’s house, held by the National Heritage Board of Poland in Warsaw.

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incorporated into the composition of the residence. A plan of Wilanów from the end of the 18th century shows that the area where the church was located was designed similarly to the other garden quarters of the palace foreground. All of them were planted with hedges and constituted a homogeneous composition. Also the width of the churchyard was matched on the eastern side to the width of the orangery garden, and on the western side to the width of the façade of the Wilanów inn, located in front of the church. The 18th-century owners of the Wilanów Estates also took care of the quality of the surrounding landscape, including Wilanów village, which was described in the 18th century as rather large with a very fine inn [Biester 1963]. The roads which led there from Warsaw were traced within the fields and planted with trees. They offered open views of the surrounding landscape [Schulz 1963]. Along one of these roads (the present-day Wiertnicza street), within an area subject to seasonal flooding, the 18th-century statue of Saint John Nepomucene was erected. This was designed by Jan Jerzy Däring, and has survived to the present day. Changes in the composition of the Wilanów residence and in the Wilanów sacral landscape in the 19th century Changes in the way of thinking about spatial planning in the second half of the 18th century coincided with the destruction of the Wilanów palace surroundings caused by fighting during Kościuszko’s Uprising (1794). Stanisław Kostka Potocki, contemporary owner of the Wilanów Estates, one of the leading representatives of the Polish Enlightenment,

a collector, a connoisseur and patron of fine arts, and propagator of Classicism, who restored the residence after its destruction, wished to give it a completely new character. As a result of these transformations, the Wilanów palace surroundings lost their former Baroque, formal character and took on the characteristics of a Romantic composition. The new picturesque northern part with the Chinese Bower, the Roman Bridge, the Triumphal Arc and the monument of the Battle of Raszyn, with its patriotic significance, were added. The Wilanów church, surrounded by trees and located in the vicinity of the park, was incorporated into the new composition. The church building was not changed, although Potocki, who was also an amateur architect, was noted for designing, together with his friend the architect Piotr Aigner, another important sacral building – Saint Anne’s Church in Warsaw – in 1788. Potocki was also involved in redesigning the other church belonging to the Wilanów Estates – the church in Służew. He was probably responsible for the transformation of the Baroque temple to the fashionable Neo-Gothic style [Bernatowicz 2013]. This is a reasonable assumption, because beneath the escarpment where the church was located he established the Romantic composition of the Gucin park, and the view towards the church became one of the most important elements of this composition. This view can be admired in the paintings of Wincenty Kasprzycki7 (Fig. 2) and Aleksander Majerski8. 7

Wincenty Kasprzycki, View of the Church in Służew and a Pond in Gucin, 1834 [Sypczuk 2013] 8 Aleksander Majerski, View of the Church in Służew, 1818 [Świątkowski 2013].

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FIGURE 2. Church of the Holy Lady Mary and Saint Catherine – Wincenty Kasprzycki’s painting [Sypczuk 2013]; present-day view from Wilanów (photo by author, 2005); present-day view from Służew (photo by author, 2013)

After Potocki’s death, on the initiative of his wife, Aleksandra Potocka, in 1823–1826, in a new cemetery a short distance from the one previously established in the churchyard, a Neo-Gothic chapel was erected. The building was designed by Piotr Chrystian Aigner, and laid out in the shape of a Greek cross. Stanisław Kostka Potocki and his brother, the distinguished politician Ignacy Potocki, were buried in this chapel. Important changes in the residential and sacral landscape of Wilanów can be observed during the second part of the 19th century, when the estates became the property of August and Aleksandra Potocki. Aleksandra in particular, a devout Catholic known for her puritanical habits, was responsible for many innovations [Fijałkowski 1973]. On her initiative, within the main body of the palace, a small chapel was built to commemorate John Sobieski III. The chapel was designed in Neo-Renaissance style by Franciszek Maria Lanci and Henryk Marconi. The central element was a statue of the Sistine Madonna. Another chapel was established in the hospi-

tal of Saint Alexander, built within the Wilanów park periphery. The hospital was founded by August and Aleksandra Potocki and built by Henryk Marconi in 1845–1847. August and Aleksandra Potocki also decided to rebuild Wilanów’s Baroque church, whose small capacity and modest architectural decoration did not satisfy their ambition. The new church was built in 1857 to a design of Henryk Marconi. It was given a Renaissance form with elements of early Italian Baroque [Fijałkowski 1973]. The churchyard was surrounded by a brick wall with 14 shrines depicting the Stations of the Cross with bas-reliefs brought from Munich (Fig. 3). During this period, sacral accents were also introduced in the vicinity of many small buildings within the Wilanów residential area. In the late 1840s the old well, located in the corner of the palace courtyard, originally designed by Piotr Aigner, was rebuilt according to Franciszek Maria Lanci’s design. Also at that time the road system within the palace foreground was redesigned. As a result,

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FIGURE 3. Present-day view of Saint Anne’s Church in Wilanów (photo by author, 2011); the historical visual axis, directed towards the church (photo by author, 2013); part of the brick wall around the churchyard with shrines depicting the Stations of the Cross (photo by author, 2014)

a complex of four regular quarters planted with trees was established. These quarters were partially surrounded by an openwork brick fence in which two shrines were built: one devoted to Saint Anne and the other to the Virgin Mary (Fig. 4). Details of the fence also strengthen the visual connections between the Wilanów church and the cemetery and the cemetery chapel.

The sacral landscape of Wilanów in the 20th and 21st centuries During the 20th century, the sacral landscape of Wilanów became rather blurred. This process, more or less intentional, was caused by the changes in the political system following World War II or simply by a lack of financial resources for continued conservation. For exam-

FIGURE 4. Shrine to the Virgin Mary within the Wilanów residence foreground (photo by author, 2014); Neo-Gothic shrine to Saint Anne (photo by author, 2014); Neo-Gothic chapel in the new Wilanów cemetery (photo by author, 2005)

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ple, in 1955, on the initiative of the director of Wilanów State Farm (PGR), the historic chapel located in Saint Alexander’s hospital was removed. Its interior was transformed into a lodging, which involved the dismantling of the historical furnishings and hacking off of the historical molding and cornices [Fijałkowski 1973]. The historical visual relation between the Wilanów church and the cemetery became blurred as a result of uncontrolled tree growth and the introduction of many advertisement boards. After 2000 a new sacral building was erected in the Wilanów landscape – the Temple of Divine Providence (Fig. 5). The cornerstone was laid on May 2, 2002. The idea of constructing a National Temple of Divine Providence dates back to 1792, when the Polish parliament and the king made a decision to erect a church in gratitude for the Constitution of the Third of May. The temple was planned to have patriotic significance. The 18th-century temple was to be built within the periphery of Royal Łazienki Park, but the subsequent loss of Poland’s independence made construction impossible. The presently existing temple (still under construction) is a votive offering for the political transformation of 1989, the 20 years of John Paul II’s pontificate and 2000 years of Christianity [Fijałkowski and Krawczyk 2002]. The location of the temple in the Wilanów landscape, as well as its form, have aroused controversy. For more than 200 years it was the Wilanów residence and Saint Anne’s Church which performed the role of dominants within the area between the Vistula river bank and the Warsaw Escarpment. Up to the end of the 20th century, the palace and other

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buildings belonging to the residential complex were the most important elements in the local landscape. The newly established Temple of Divine Providence9 is now a very strong dominant just a few hundred meters from the palace. Along with the temple a new road arrangement has been created. The main road leading to the Temple of Divine Providence is the Avenue of the Polish Republic, which constitutes a new very strong visual axis within the Wilanów landscape (Fig. 5). The area surrounding the Wilanów residence has been built up, and the fields and meadows formerly existing there have practically disappeared. Neither the Temple of Divine Providence nor the new housing development has been subordinated to the landscape context of the historical residence, and their scale has a degrading influence on the perception of the historical monuments. Despite these unfavorable transformations in the former landscape of fields and meadows, the historical visual axis directed towards Saint Anne’s Church in Wilanów (the present-day Klimczaka street) is still visible. Along its entire length, the church dome and the campanile surrounded by a massif of old trees constitute a strong visual dominant (Fig. 3). Within the former Wolica village, which belonged to the Wilanów Estates, on the top of the Warsaw Escarpment where previously the Church of the 9

The Temple of Divine Providence was designed by the architectural firm of Wojciech and Lech Szymborski. The church has a Greek cross layout and is topped with a dome with a cross. The four gates to the temple symbolize four ways which lead the Poles to freedom: Prayer, Suffering, Arms and Culture.

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FIGURE 5. Temple of Divine Providence seen from the Avenue of the Polish Republic (photo by author, 2014); Church of Blessed Edmund Bojanowski in Wolica (photo by author, 2014)

Holy Lady Mary and Saint Catherine in Służew was located, in 2002 a new parish church dedicated to Blessed Edmund Bojanowski was erected (Fig. 5). Because of its not very distinct form it is not perceived as a dominant, although it was built at the same terrain elevation as the historical church in Służew. Within the Służew churchyard, from the beginning of the 20th century, many new significant sacral elements were established. In front of the main entrance to the temple is the statue of Our Lady of Perpetual Help, founded in 1902 by the Latoszek family, who lived in the neighboring village. Another new sacral element is the statue of Our Lady Immaculate rescued from the Warsaw Ghetto, in front of which the Jews who wished to convert to Catholicism professed their faith. The Służew church building is hardly visible in the contemporary landscape of the former Wilanów Estates. The housing estates built in the 1990s in the vicinity of the church blocked the view from the Wilanów residential complex onto the church and the remains of the Gucin filial residence. As a result of the

development of the former fields and meadows of western Wilanów at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the church has lost its role of a local dominant. Both the Church of the Holy Lady Mary and Saint Catherine in Służew and the Church of Blessed Edmund Bojanowski in Wolica are visible from Wilanów only from within a narrow open area along the Warsaw Escarpment (Fig. 5). Within the former Wilanów Estates, numerous wayside crosses and shrines are preserved. The majority of them were established in the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. They were built as offerings of thanks, to commemorate events of importance for the inhabitants of Wilanów or to express their religiousness. Most of them are located along the historical routes and within the former villages of the Wilanów Estates (Wilanów, Wolica, Służew, Powsin, Zawady, Kępa Zawadowska), which have maintained their original spatial composition. Especially numerous are the crosses and shrines along Przyczółkowa street, which was laid out along the historical route leading to Czersk. One of the oldest preserved

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sacral elements is the cross dating from 1848 (Fig. 6). Even in the present day the tradition of erecting wayside shrines and crosses still persists among Wilanów’s inhabitants. An example is the shrine commemorating the Katyń massacre10 erected in 2010 beneath the Warsaw Escarpment, near Wolica village (Fig. 6).

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ers such as Wojciech Fijałkowski and Tadeusz Bernatowicz mostly concentrate on the historical and architectural aspects of the sacral buildings within the Wilanów Estates, omitting the landscape aspect. Most of the existing publications concerning the compositional and visual connections between the Wilanów residence and the dominants of a sacral

FIGURE 6. Examples of wayside crosses and shrines located within the Wilanów Estates – cross dating from 1848 on Przyczółkowa street (photo by author, 2014); cross dating from 1930 in Wilanów village (photo by author, 2014); cross erected to commemorate John Paul II’s beatification in 2011 (photo by author, 2014); shrine commemorating the Katyń massacre erected in 2010 (photo by author, 2014)

DISCUSSION The existing literature on the Wilanów Estates does not contain any extensive discussion concerning the place of sacred architecture in the landscape. Research10

A shrine erected to commemorate the series of mass executions of at least 21,768 Polish citizens, including over 10,000 army and police officers, by the Soviet Union. The massacre took place in Katyn forest in 1940. The executions were carried out by the People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD), the Soviet secret police. The Soviet Union claimed the victims had been murdered by the Nazis, and continued to deny responsibility for the massacres until 1990, when it officially acknowledged that the killings had been perpetrated by the NKVD.

nature located in the surrounding landscape [Kicińska 1993, Lisowska et al. 1993, Majdecki 1996) refer to the historical relations and do not consider the new developments such as the Temple of Divine Providence and the Church of Blessed Edmund Bojanowski. Also they do not analyze how the housing estate newly established within the former Wilanów fields influences these relations. The elements of minor sacral architecture, such as wayside shrines and crosses, are rarely the subject of research concerning the landscape aspect. The present article therefore significantly broadens knowledge about the sacral

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elements of Wilanów by analyzing their spatial context and their role in the Wilanów residential landscape, from both historical and contemporary standpoints.

CONCLUSIONS Wilanów is an example of a historical Polish residence where sacral elements were incorporated into the surrounding landscape. The most important among them are the 17th-century wooden church of Saint Leonard and the chapel also dedicated to the same patron, the 18th-century brick church designed by Jan Kotelnicki which replaced the previous wooden church, the 19th-century Saint Anne’s Church raised on the basis of the Baroque church by Henryk Marconi, the 19th-century cemetery chapel designed by Piotr Chrystian Aigner, and the numerous wayside crosses and shrines. The identification of the formal relations between these elements and the residence, and determination of their significance in the surrounding landscape, allow one to conclude that their location and spatial form were intentional. They were determined by the composition of the residence as a whole and the landscape of the Wilanów Estates subordinated to it. The crucial element in these relations was the Wilanów church, located at the edge of the palace gardens, in its successive architectonic forms. The historical connections between the sacral elements and the Wilanów residence are not well-preserved. An example is the complete erasure of the visual and compositional relations between Saint Anne’s Church and the cemetery chapel,

and the blurring of the visual relations among many crucial sites within the historical Wilanów Estates and Saint Anne’s Church on a larger scale. This applies to the deterioration of the relations between Saint Anne’s Church and the palace in Ursynów, the garden complex of Gucin-Gaj, the Wolica manorial estate and the historical sacral buildings such as the church in Służew. The only historical relation still visible in the Wilanów landscape is the vista of Saint Anne’s Church from Klimczaka street, the historical road leading to the Wolica manorial estate. The authors have also ascertained that the newly erected sacral buildings do not refer to the historical surroundings of the residence. Such relations were not taken into consideration when the locations of the Temple of Divine Providence and the Church of Blessed Edmund Bojanowski in Wolica were chosen. Despite significant unfavorable changes in the Wilanów landscape, many elements of minor sacral architecture are preserved there. Their locations reinforce the historical spatial arrangement of the villages belonging to the Wilanów Estates and the routes of the historical roads.

REFERENCES BERNATOWICZ T. (2013). Architektura kościoła św. Katarzyny na Służewie XVIII–XX wiek. In: A. Sołtan-Lipska (Ed.) Służew i jego kościół. Parafia Rzymskokatolicka św. Katarzyny. Warszawa, pp. 360–393. BIESTER J.E. (1963). Kilka listów o Polsce pisanych latem 1791 r. In: W. Zawadzki (Ed.) Polska stanisławowska w oczach cudzoziemców. Vol. II. PWN, Warszawa, pp. 185–242.

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CYDZIK J., FIJAŁKOWSKI W. (1975). Wilanów. Arkady, Warszawa. Dokumentacja konserwatorska “Zielona Karta” plebanii wilanowskiej. Narodowy Instytut Dziedzictwa (the National Heritage Board of Poland), Warszawa. FIJAŁKOWSKI W., KRAWCZYK J. (2002). Wilanów dawny i współczesny. Wydawnictwo Pagina, Warszawa. FIJAŁKOWSKI W. (year of publication unknown). Królewski Wilanów. Towarzystwo Opieki nad Zabytkami, Warszawa. FIJAŁKOWSKI W. (1973). Wilanów. PWN, Warszawa. KICIŃSKA E. (1993). Krajobraz kulturowy skarpy warszawskiej. Główne założenia wielkoprzestrzenne. In: B. Wierzbicka (Ed.) Skarpa Warszawska. Biblioteka Towarzystwa Opieki nad Zabytkami, Warszawa, pp. 123–134. LISOWSKA M., MARCONI-BETKA A., WOLSKI P. (1993). Studium ochrony krajobrazu zespołu pałacowo-krajobrazowego Wilanowa. Studia i Materiały, Krajobrazy. Ośrodek Ochrony Zabytkowego Krajobrazu, Warszawa. MAJDECKI L. (1965). Gucin-Gaj. Analiza układu kompozycyjno-przestrzennego na tle warunków naturalnych i zarysu historycznego. Rejestr Ogrodów Polskich. Vol. 4. PWN, Warszawa. MAJDECKI L. (1996). Studium ochrony środowiska przyrodniczo-kulturowego i krajobrazu zachodniego obszaru gminy Wilanów (Manuscript). Warszawa. MIŁOBĘDZKI A. (Ed.) (1988). Zarys dziejów architektury w Polsce, Wiedza Powszechna, Warszawa. PIBER M. (2001). Służew średniowieczny. Dzieje parafii i wsi Służew w ziemi warszawskiej. Towarzystwo Naukowe Warszawskie, Warszawa. Plan Wilanowa autorstwa inżyniera wojskowego Adolfa Boya z 1682 r., odrys Gerarda Ciołka. In: A. Planta Jeneralna Pałacu Wilanowskiego z ogrodem (19th-century copy of a plan from the end of the 18th century). AGAD Zb. Kart. 475-1.

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SCHULZ F. (1963). Podróże Inflantczyka z Rygi do Warszawy i po Polsce w latach 1791–93. In: W. Zawadzki (Ed.) Polska stanisławowska w oczach cudzoziemców. PWN, Warzawa, pp. 381–637. SKIMBOROWICZ H., GERSON I.W. (1877). Willanów – album widoków i pamiątek. Warszawa. SMOLEŃSKA B. (1979). Z dziejów dóbr wilanowskich w XVI-XVIII wieku. II Rocznik Warszawski XV. Warszawa, pp. 289–320. SMOLEŃSKA, B. (1984) Przemiany struktury własności ziemskiej w okolicach Warszawy w XVI–XVIII wieku. Rocznik Mazowiecki. Vol. VIII. Warszawa, pp. 87–107. ŚWIĄTKOWSKI M. (2013). Gucin – dwór i ogród w pejzażu kulturowym Służewa. In: A. Sołtan-Lipska (Ed.) Służew i jego kościół. Parafia Rzymskokatolicka św. Katarzyny, Warszawa, pp. 127–155. SYPCZUK P. (2013). Gaj w Gucinie. Walka o restytucję zabytkowego parku w czasach Ksawerego i Adama Branickich. In: A. Sołtan-Lipska (Ed.) Służew i jego kościół. Parafia Rzymskokatolicka św. Katarzyny, Warszawa, pp. 156–192. SZPANOWSKI P. (2006). Zmiany w zagospodarowaniu przestrzennym otoczenia rezydencji wilanowskiej. In: J. Rylke (Ed.) Ochrona i użytkowanie zabytkowych parków, ogrodów, cmentarzy oraz innych form zaprojektowanej zieleni oraz ich promocja w środowisku społecznym. Przyroda i miasto. Vol. VIII. Wyd. SGGW, Warszawa, pp. 97–101. SZPANOWSKI P. (2009). Wilanów residence a desired neighbourhood. In: J. Rylke, M. Kaczyńska (Eds) Green Worlds. Monumental cultural landscape, parks, gardens, cemeteries and other forms of designed green spaces. Their protection, conservation, restoration and public promotion. Wyd. SGGW, Warszawa, pp. 165–185.

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Streszczenie: Sacrum w krajobrazie rezydencjonalnym – przykład Wilanowa. Niniejszy tekst dotyczy relacji przestrzennych między rezydencją a obiektem sakralnym, przedstawionych na przykładzie Wilanowa. Historycznie bryła kościoła oraz inne obiekty sakralne stanowiły wyraźne dominanty w przestrzeni polskich rezydencji i były kompozycyjnie włączone do ich układu. W Wilanowie świadczą o tym zarówno zgeometryzowane, kwaterowe rozwiązania barokowe,

zastosowane tu w wiekach XVII i XVIII, w które wkomponowano tutejszy kościół, jak i późniejsza, romantyczna kompozycja, wprowadzona w XIX wieku, w której kościół i inne obiekty sakralne pełniły rolę dominant. Współcześnie historyczne obiekty sakralne stają się coraz mniej czytelne w przestrzeni rezydencji wilanowskiej, a nowe tego typu realizacje nie pozostają z rezydencją w żadnych związkach kompozycyjnych.